Genes, Environments, and Time: The Biology of Adversity and Resilience

Article Figures & Data

Download figure
Open in new tab
Download powerpoint
FIGURE 1
An interactive GET framework. An emerging developmental biology connects the triadic interactions among genetic variation, environmental threats and supports, and developmental time in the early origins of physical and mental health outcomes. Represented by the arrow and triangle, the combined, reciprocally interactive influences of genes, environments, and time on each other all contribute to healthy or pathogenic outcomes, such as highly adaptive behavior, heightened stress reactivity, inflammation, metabolic balance and imbalance, and modified organ architecture.

TABLE 1

Three Forms of GxE Interplay, With Mechanisms and Examples

Forms of GxE Interplay	Mechanisms	Examples
1. rGE	Individuals with certain genetic variants choose, alter, or create their environments.	Children with particular genotypes may evoke specific parenting behaviors, such as harsh discipline.
2. GxE	Environmental influences are apparent only among individuals carrying a particular gene variant.	Lack of early endotoxin exposure predisposes children to asthma, but only among children with a genetic variant in the CD14 gene.
3. eGE	Environmental exposures regulate or calibrate gene expression through epigenetic processes.	Methylation of cytosine nucleotides within certain sets of genes is associated with increased sympathetic reactivity to stressors.