Advertising Disclaimer »

Discover Pediatric Collections on COVID-19 and Racism and Its Effects on Pediatric Health

Article

Antibiotic Prescribing for Children in United States Emergency Departments: 2009–2014

Nicole M. Poole, Daniel J. Shapiro, Katherine E. Fleming-Dutra, Lauri A. Hicks, Adam L. Hersh and Matthew P. Kronman
Pediatrics February 2019, 143 (2) e20181056; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-1056
Download PDF

Abstract

Video Abstract

OBJECTIVES: To characterize and compare ambulatory antibiotic prescribing for children in US pediatric and nonpediatric emergency departments (EDs).

METHODS: A cross-sectional retrospective study of patients aged 0 to 17 years discharged from EDs in the United States was conducted by using the 2009–2014 National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey ED data. We estimated the proportion of ED visits resulting in antibiotic prescriptions, stratified by antibiotic spectrum, class, diagnosis, and ED type (“pediatric” defined as >75% of visits by patients aged 0–17 years, versus “nonpediatric”). Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine factors independently associated with first-line, guideline-concordant prescribing for acute otitis media, pharyngitis, and sinusitis.

RESULTS: In 2009–2014, of the 29 million mean annual ED visits by children, 14% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 10%–20%) occurred at pediatric EDs. Antibiotics overall were prescribed more frequently in nonpediatric than pediatric ED visits (24% vs 20%, P < .01). Antibiotic prescribing frequencies were stable over time. Of all antibiotics prescribed, 44% (95% CI: 42%–45%) were broad spectrum, and 32% (95% CI: 30%–34%, 2.1 million per year) were generally not indicated. Compared with pediatric EDs, nonpediatric EDs had a higher frequency of prescribing macrolides (18% vs 8%, P < .0001) and a lower frequency of first-line, guideline-concordant prescribing for the respiratory conditions studied (77% vs 87%, P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS: Children are prescribed almost 7 million antibiotic prescriptions in EDs annually, primarily in nonpediatric EDs. Pediatric antibiotic stewardship efforts should expand to nonpediatric EDs nationwide, particularly regarding avoidance of antibiotic prescribing for conditions for which antibiotics are not indicated, reducing macrolide prescriptions, and increasing first-line, guideline-concordant prescribing.

  • Abbreviations:
    AOM —
    acute otitis media
    aOR —
    adjusted odds ratio
    ARTI —
    acute respiratory tract infection
    CI —
    confidence interval
    ED —
    emergency department
    MSA —
    metropolitan statistical area
    NHAMCS —
    National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey
    SSTI —
    skin and soft tissue infection
    UTI —
    urinary tract infection

    • What’s Known on This Subject:

    Children are often prescribed antibiotics in emergency departments (EDs). Previous work has examined antibiotic prescribing in EDs for particular diagnostic conditions, but a comprehensive national evaluation of all antibiotic prescribing for children in pediatric and nonpediatric EDs is lacking.

    What This Study Adds:

    Children are prescribed >2 million antibiotics annually in nonpediatric EDs that are likely unnecessary. Compared with pediatric EDs, nonpediatric EDs prescribe more macrolides and fewer guideline-concordant antibiotics for common illnesses. Pediatric antibiotic stewardship efforts are needed in EDs nationwide.

    Approximately 18% of US children visited an emergency department (ED) in 2012.1 Children in EDs often receive antibiotics, which are estimated to be prescribed in 15% to 20% of the >26 million annual pediatric visits to US EDs.2–5 Respiratory conditions account for >70% of antibiotic prescriptions for children in the ambulatory setting.4 Previous work reveals that the majority of antibiotics prescribed to children in ambulatory settings are broad spectrum, and ∼30% are not in accordance with national guidelines.6–9

    The National Action Plan for Combating Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria aims to reduce inappropriate antibiotic use by 50% in ambulatory settings, including EDs, by 2020.10,11 However, formal antibiotic stewardship efforts specific to ambulatory and ED settings are lacking nationally.12,13

    Over 80% of pediatric visits to an ED occur in nonacademic EDs or general (ie, nonpediatric) EDs.2,14,15 Children with asthma, bronchitis, and croup receive higher quality of care and fewer unnecessary chest radiographs when treated at a pediatric ED compared with a nonpediatric ED.16 Previous work has revealed a lower frequency of antibiotic prescribing for children with febrile respiratory illness visits in pediatric EDs compared with nonpediatric EDs.17 However, an understanding of the overall landscape of antibiotic prescribing for children presenting to pediatric and nonpediatric EDs nationally is both lacking and necessary to guide efforts to improve antibiotic prescribing for children in EDs.

    We aimed to provide a comprehensive characterization of antibiotic use for children in pediatric and nonpediatric EDs nationally by the type of agent prescribed, the diagnoses associated with antibiotic visits, and concordance with national guideline recommendations for first-line treatment of common respiratory infections.

    Methods

    Study Design and Data Source

    We performed a cross-sectional retrospective study using the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey (NHAMCS) ED public-use data files from 2009 to 2014 (the most recent available data at study onset).18 NHAMCS is conducted annually by the National Center for Health Statistics from a sample of nonfederal, hospital-based EDs, including representation from freestanding pediatric facilities.19 In the survey, researchers used a multistage probability sampling design in selecting participating hospitals and patient visits across the United States. Data for sampled visits are collected during a 4-week reporting period, weighted to produce national estimates, and classified by US census region.20 Participating centers had an unweighted ED survey response rate of 75.5% to 92.0% over the study period.

    Survey variables used included demographics (age, sex, and race), insurance status (private versus nonprivate), provider type (physician versus advanced practice provider), US census region, ED metropolitan statistical area (MSA) status, discharge diagnosis, and medications administered, prescribed, or continued at ED visits. MSA is defined by the Office of Management and Budget as geographical regions with high population densities. Diagnoses were determined by International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision codes. Duration of therapy and route of medication administration were unavailable; medications available only in topical formulations were omitted. For consistency across all included survey years, the first 3 diagnosis fields and 8 medications were considered.

    Study Participants and Setting

    Visits for all patients aged 0 to 17 years discharged from the ED were included. Antibiotic visits were defined as ED visits in which systemic (oral or parenteral) antibiotics were mentioned as continued, administered, or prescribed. Civilian noninstitutionalized population data from the US Census Bureau21 were used to determine antibiotic visits per 1000 in the US population. We estimated each ED’s proportion of pediatric visits by calculating the weighted proportion of visits by children out of total ED visits. The ED type was then defined as pediatric if >75% of all visits to that ED were by patients aged 0 to 17 years, or nonpediatric otherwise, a definition used for classifying pediatric EDs previously.2,22,23 In a histogram of the proportion of weighted pediatric visits by ED (Supplemental Fig 3), it is indicated that most EDs defined as pediatric had >90% of visits by children; thus, our definition appears to accurately differentiate pediatric EDs from others.

    Diagnoses for Antibiotic Visits

    The NHAMCS data set does not link medications with diagnoses. On the basis of a previously published classification system informed by national guideline recommendations, we assigned the top 3 listed diagnoses to 1 of 3 tiers: diagnoses for which antibiotics were (1) almost always indicated (eg, bacterial pneumonia), (2) may be indicated (eg, pharyngitis), or (3) generally not indicated (eg, bronchiolitis or bronchitis).5 Each visit was assigned a single diagnosis, with priority given hierarchically to tier 1 diagnoses, then tier 2 diagnoses, then tier 3 diagnoses. If a visit had multiple diagnoses from a single tier, the first-listed diagnosis was assigned.

    Because >70% of ambulatory pediatric antibiotic prescribing is for acute respiratory tract infection (ARTI), we evaluated prescribing for ARTIs.4 We defined ARTI to include pneumonia, acute otitis media (AOM), nonsuppurative otitis media, sinusitis, pharyngitis (including viral and streptococcal), nonspecific upper respiratory tract infection, bronchitis or bronchiolitis, and influenza.5

    Classification of Antibiotic Spectrum and First-line, Guideline-Concordant Prescribing

    Antibiotic types were classified by their generic components and therapeutic classes using the Multum Lexicon Drug Database. Antibiotics included the following: penicillins, cephalosporins, macrolides, quinolones, lincomycin derivatives, tetracyclines, sulfonamides, urinary anti-infectives (eg, nitrofurantoin), aminoglycosides, carbapenems, linezolid, and vancomycin. The general class of antibiotics (eg, penicillins) and subclasses (eg, first-generation cephalosporins) were determined using Multum Level 2 and Level 3 categories, respectively. The following antibiotics and antibiotic classes were considered narrow spectrum: penicillin, amoxicillin, first-generation cephalosporins, sulfonamides, and nitrofurantoin. All other antibiotics, including macrolides and combination β-lactam and β-lactamase inhibitors such as amoxicillin-clavulanate, were considered broad spectrum.

    The diagnoses of AOM, pharyngitis, and sinusitis are common respiratory illnesses, and have evidence-based clinical practice guidelines in which specific and primarily narrow-spectrum antibiotic options are recommended as first-line therapy.24–26 On the basis of national guidelines, we defined first-line, guideline-concordant antibiotic use as amoxicillin or amoxicillin-clavulanate for AOM and sinusitis and as penicillin or amoxicillin for pharyngitis. Amoxicillin-clavulanate was included as first line for AOM because of recommendations to use it as first line for selected patients, for example, for children with concurrent conjunctivitis.

    Analysis

    We studied 3 main outcomes. First, using NHAMCS-provided patient visit weights, we estimated the proportion and mean annual number of ED visits resulting in an antibiotic prescription, called antibiotic visits. We stratified antibiotic visits by patient demographic characteristics, patient insurance type, provider type, US census region, ED MSA status, and ED type. Six years of survey data were combined to increase sample size for analyses stratified by age. Second, we compared the proportion of antibiotic visits and antibiotic classes for ARTI, urinary tract infection (UTI), skin and soft tissue infection (SSTI), and diagnostic tier by pediatric and nonpediatric EDs. All pediatric age groups were combined for the analysis of antibiotic use by diagnosis to increase the sample size and produce reliable estimates, as suggested in the NHAMCS use files.27 We assessed trends in proportion of antibiotic classes over time using logistic regression in 2-year increments (2009–2010, 2011–2012, and 2013–2014) as the predictor variable and percentage of antibiotics by class as the outcome. Finally, on the basis of previous work in ambulatory settings demonstrating factors associated with antibiotic prescribing,4,28–30 we used multivariable logistic regression, adjusting for patient demographic characteristics, patient insurance type, provider type, US census region, ED type, and diagnoses, to determine factors independently associated with the outcome of first-line, guideline-concordant prescribing for AOM, pharyngitis, and sinusitis. Odds ratio estimates for first-line, guideline-concordant prescribing by MSA were also determined. Data on MSA were not publicly available in 2012; therefore, odds ratio estimates for MSA were determined using a separate model that adjusted for all other variables but excluded observations from 2012.

    We performed statistical analyses using Stata 14 (Stata Corp, College Station, TX), accounting for the complex survey design, including patient visit weights, strata, and primary sampling unit design variables. Estimates were not calculated if they were based on <30 visits or if the relative SE was <0.3, as recommended by NHAMCS standards for reliability and precision.27 Antibiotic prescribing proportions were compared by using χ2 tests for heterogeneity. Ninety-five percent confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for all estimates. Significance was considered at a 2-sided P value ≤.05. NHAMCS data sets used in this analysis are deidentified and publicly available and thus were determined nonhuman subjects by the human subjects advisor at the National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases.

    Results

    Characteristics of Pediatric Visits to EDs

    In 2009–2014, an average of 29 million (95% CI: 27–32 million) ED visits by children occurred annually, of which 23% (95% CI: 22%–24%) were antibiotic visits, accounting for an estimated 6.7 million (95% CI: 6.1–7.5 million) antibiotic visits annually (Table 1). Fourteen percent (95% CI: 10%–20%) of ED visits occurred in pediatric EDs. The percentage of ED visits resulting in an antibiotic prescription was significantly higher in nonpediatric EDs (24%; 95% CI: 23%–25%) compared with pediatric EDs (20%; 95% CI: 17%–22%, P < .01).

    View this table:
    TABLE 1

    Characteristics of Visits to EDs by Children 0–17 Years of Age, United States, 2009–2014

    Diagnoses Associated With Antibiotic Visits

    ARTIs accounted for the majority of diagnoses among antibiotic visits (55%; 95% CI: 54%–57%), followed by SSTI (9%; 95% CI: 8%–10%) and UTI (7%; 95% CI: 6%–8%). AOM and pharyngitis accounted for 45% (95% CI: 42%–47%) and 25% (95% CI: 23%–27%) of all ARTI antibiotic visits, respectively. Pediatric and nonpediatric EDs had similar proportions of antibiotic visits for ARTI, SSTI, and UTI (Table 2).

    View this table:
    TABLE 2

    Percentage of ED Visits and Antibiotic Visits by Diagnosis Category and Tier, Stratified by ED Type, United States, 2009–2014

    Of antibiotic visits for children in EDs nationally, 32% (95% CI: 30%–34%; 2.1 million per year) were for conditions for which antibiotics are generally not indicated. There were no significant differences in the proportion of visits in each diagnostic tier (antibiotics almost always, may be, or generally not indicated) for children in pediatric versus nonpediatric EDs (Table 2). However, nonpediatric EDs had significantly more antibiotic visits for diagnoses for which antibiotics are generally not indicated (33%; 95% CI: 31%–34%) compared with pediatric EDs (26%; 95% CI: 21%–31%, P = .02).

    Antibiotic Classes Prescribed at ED Visits

    Narrow-spectrum penicillins were the most commonly prescribed antibiotic class in visits to both pediatric and nonpediatric EDs, followed by cephalosporins, macrolides, sulfonamides, and lincomycin derivatives (clindamycin) (Fig 1). Fluoroquinolones comprised 2% (95% CI: 2%–3%), and tetracyclines, urinary anti-infectives, and aminoglycosides together comprised 3% (95% CI: 3%–3%) of antibiotic prescriptions in all EDs; prescribing estimates for these agents in pediatric EDs did not meet NHAMCS standards for reliability or precision because of sample size. There was no significant change over time in the percentage of any 1 antibiotic class of all antibiotics prescribed (Fig 2).

    FIGURE 1
    FIGURE 1

    Percentage of antibiotic visits by antibiotic class for ED visits by children, by ED type, United States, 2009–2014. Shading represents antibiotic class: dark gray represents penicillins, light gray represents cephalosporins, gray and white checkered represents macrolides, black and white dotted represents sulfonamides, white and gray diamonds represent clindamycin (lincomycin derivative), and lightest gray presents all other antibiotics. Percentages sum to >100% because of coprescribing at some visits. *P ≤ .05 in comparison of nonpediatric versus pediatric ED.

    FIGURE 2
    FIGURE 2

    Percentage of antibiotic visits by antibiotic class for ED visits by children over time, United States, 2009–2014. a Antibiotic visits were defined as visits in which antibiotics were mentioned as continued, administered, or prescribed. b Two-year increments were used to assess change in antibiotic prescriptions over time. There was no significant change in percentages over the study period.

    Macrolides were prescribed in 17% (95% CI: 16%–19%; 1.1 million) of all visits to EDs in which antibiotics were prescribed. Among antibiotic visits, the diagnoses most frequently associated with macrolides included AOM (17%; 95% CI: 14%–20%), nonviral pneumonia (14%; 95% CI: 12%–17%), pharyngitis or tonsillitis (12%; 95% CI: 10%–14%), bronchitis or bronchiolitis (11%; 95% CI: 9%–13%), and upper respiratory tract infection (10%; 95% CI: 8%–13%). Of all ED macrolides prescribing to children, 44% (95% CI: 41%–47%; 500 000 annually) were for diagnoses for which antibiotics are generally not indicated. Macrolides were prescribed at a significantly higher frequency in nonpediatric EDs (18%; 95% CI: 17%–20%) compared with pediatric EDs (8%; 95% CI: 6%–10%, P < .0001; Fig 1).

    Broad-spectrum antibiotics were prescribed in 44% (95% CI: 42%–45%) of antibiotic visits by children in EDs nationally, with no difference between nonpediatric (44%; 95% CI: 42%–45%) versus pediatric (44%; 95% CI: 40%–48%, P = .91) EDs.

    Characteristics of First-line, Guideline-Concordant Therapy

    Among children with AOM, sinusitis, or pharyngitis, the proportion of antibiotic visits during which patients received first-line, guideline-concordant therapy was 78% (95% CI: 76%–80%) and was higher in pediatric EDs (87%; 95% CI: 82%–90%) than nonpediatric EDs (77%; 95% CI: 75%–79%, P < .001; Table 3). This difference persisted in the multivariable model for the percentage of AOM, pharyngitis, or sinusitis visits prescribed first-line, guideline-concordant therapy, with an adjusted odds ratio (aOR) of 2.01 (95% CI: 1.38–2.92) for pediatric EDs compared with nonpediatric EDs. First-line, guideline-concordant antibiotic prescribing was also significantly more likely in visits by African American children (aOR: 1.56; 95% CI: 1.15–2.11) compared with visits by white children. First-line, guideline-concordant antibiotic prescribing was significantly lower in the Midwest (aOR: 0.51; 95% CI: 0.34–0.77), South (aOR: 0.46; 95% CI: 0.32–0.67), and West (aOR: 0.55; 95% CI: 0.35–0.87) when compared with the Northeast region (Table 3). Patients with sinusitis and pharyngitis had lower adjusted odds of receiving first-line antibiotic treatment (aOR: 0.51; 95% CI: 0.32–0.82 and aOR: 0.72; 95% CI: 0.53–0.96, respectively) compared with patients with AOM. The percentage of AOM, sinusitis, and pharyngitis visits with first-line, guideline-concordant prescribing did not change over the study period (Supplemental Fig 4A).

    View this table:
    TABLE 3

    Factors Associated With First-line, Guideline-Concordant Antibiotic Prescribing for AOM, Sinusitis, and Pharyngitis in ED Visits by Children, United States, 2009–2014

    Discussion

    In this study, we provide a comprehensive overview of antibiotic use among visits involving children in US EDs. Nonpediatric EDs care for >85% of pediatric ED patients (>25 million visits annually) and consequently prescribe antibiotics in >6 million annual pediatric visits, nearly 10% of all pediatric outpatient antibiotic prescriptions.9 Compared with visits in pediatric EDs, clinicians in nonpediatric EDs prescribe antibiotics more frequently for conditions for which antibiotics are likely unnecessary, are more likely to select macrolides, and are less likely to select first-line, guideline-recommended antibiotics for children with common respiratory illnesses.

    Although the proportion of children with viral infections receiving unnecessary antibiotics has been as low as 2.5% in selected, large, academic pediatric EDs,31 we evaluated all ED visits nationally and found 26% of antibiotic visits at pediatric EDs were for conditions for which antibiotics were generally not indicated. Our finding mirrors previous work on antibiotic prescribing for children with ARTI in the ambulatory and ED setting.4,32 In comparison, we found that 33% of antibiotic visits at nonpediatric EDs were for conditions for which antibiotics were generally not indicated, accounting for an estimated 2 million unnecessary pediatric antibiotic prescriptions annually. Antibiotic prescribing for these conditions provides no benefit to patients, puts them at unnecessary risk for adverse events, and should be a target for quality improvement in EDs nationally, particularly in nonpediatric EDs.

    More frequent unnecessary and guideline-discordant antibiotic prescribing by clinicians in nonpediatric EDs may reflect differences in clinical experiences during training. The American Academy of Pediatrics has published multiple evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for common pediatric conditions, created with multidisciplinary expert consensus, including representation from pediatric emergency medicine. ARTIs constitute the majority of antibiotic visits for children in EDs nationally, as is the case among outpatients seen by pediatric clinicians.4,33 Pediatric-trained clinicians are more likely to work in pediatric EDs compared with nonpediatric EDs34,35 and might thereby have increased familiarity and compliance with pediatric-specific guidelines, which could contribute to differences in quality of antibiotic prescribing between pediatric and nonpediatric EDs. Previous work reveals children are more likely to receive unnecessary antibiotics for upper respiratory tract infections in EDs or family practitioner offices compared with pediatrician offices.36 Increased exposure of emergency medicine clinicians to pediatric-focused guidelines and antibiotic stewardship initiatives is an important strategy to improve antibiotic prescribing quality in nonpediatric EDs.

    We found that broad-spectrum antibiotics constitute almost half (47%) of all antibiotics prescribed to children in the ED. Previous work has revealed similar rates of broad-spectrum antibiotic prescribing for children in other ambulatory settings and in the ED with respiratory tract infections, specifically.4,32 In our study, macrolides accounted for 17% of all antibiotics prescribed to children in EDs, and nonpediatric EDs prescribed macrolides significantly more often than pediatric EDs (18% vs 8%, respectively). With our work, we add to a growing body of literature in which it is demonstrated that nonpediatric health care centers and clinicians prescribe macrolides more frequently than pediatric health care centers and clinicians.37–40 In our study, macrolides were most commonly prescribed for AOM; however, macrolides are not recommended for AOM treatment.24 Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of AOM and sinusitis,41 yet ∼30% of US invasive S pneumoniae isolates are resistant to macrolides,42 so macrolides represent a suboptimal treatment choice for these conditions. Bronchitis or bronchiolitis and upper respiratory tract infections, diagnoses for which antibiotics are not recommended,43–46 constituted 21% of all macrolide use in our study. Inappropriate macrolide use should be a target for improvement in antibiotic prescribing for children in EDs and in nonpediatric EDs, in particular.

    The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Core Elements of Outpatient Antibiotic Stewardship47 offers a framework for implementing antibiotic stewardship in outpatient settings, including EDs. Additionally, EDs can improve their antibiotic prescribing through standardized clinical pathways for guideline-concordant antibiotic prescribing and quality of care, clinical decision support tools, and clinical justification for nonrecommended antibiotic use.47,48

    We acknowledge several possible limitations to this study. First, in our study period from 2009 to 2014, we captured the most recent survey data available at the time of the analysis. Although prescribing patterns could have changed in the interim, the trend in antibiotic prescribing did not change significantly during the study period (Supplemental Fig 4B). Second, indications for antibiotics were based on the 3 diagnosis codes available in the NHAMCS data set, which were not directly linked to medications mentioned during the visit. The hierarchical classification system used was designed to categorize the most likely diagnosis for which the antibiotic was prescribed. However, it is possible that a small proportion of antibiotic visits grouped as “generally not indicated” might still warrant antibiotic prescribing, such as visits among patients with sickle cell disease and fever. Third, patient allergies to medications are not captured in the NHAMCS data set, which could influence the antibiotic class prescribed. However, patient antibiotic allergies would be expected to occur at similar rates in pediatric and nonpediatric EDs. Fourth, longitudinal patient data were not available, nor were data on provider specialty. Finally, although our definition of pediatric EDs has been used previously2,22,23 and is likely specific (Supplemental Fig 3), some large nonpediatric EDs might have a distinct pediatric subsection that constitutes the minority of visits but is nonetheless staffed by pediatric specialists.

    Conclusions

    In this nationally representative study of all ED visits by children, we found the vast majority of pediatric visits and antibiotics ordered or prescribed to children occur in nonpediatric EDs, highlighting the important role of nonpediatric emergency medicine practitioners in improving the quality of antibiotic prescribing for children nationally. Pediatric antibiotic stewardship efforts in nonpediatric EDs have the potential to eliminate >2 million unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions annually and increase the rates of guideline-concordant antibiotic use among children seen in this setting. Macrolides are frequently and inappropriately prescribed for children in EDs and in nonpediatric EDs, in particular. Antibiotic stewardship efforts should expand to EDs nationwide, particularly regarding avoidance of antibiotic prescribing for treatment of conditions for which antibiotics are not indicated, reducing macrolide use, and increasing first-line, guideline-concordant prescribing for children, especially in nonpediatric EDs.

    Footnotes

      • Accepted October 23, 2018.
    • Address correspondence to Nicole M. Poole, MD, MPH, Department of Pediatrics, Seattle Children’s Hospital, 4800 Sand Point Way NE, M.A. 7.226, Seattle, WA 98105. E-mail: nicole.poole{at}seattlechildrens.org

    • The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

    • FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE: The authors have indicated they have no financial relationships relevant to this article to disclose.

    • FUNDING: Supported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention through Intergovernmental Personnel Act (171IPA1708452).

    • POTENTIAL CONFLICT OF INTEREST: The authors have indicated they have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

    • COMPANION PAPER: A companion to this article can be found online at www.pediatrics.org/cgi/doi/10.1542/peds.2018-2972.

    References

    1. ↵
      1. Gindi RM,
      2. Jones LI
      . Reasons for emergency room use among US children: National Health Interview Survey, 2012. NCHS Data Brief. 2014;(160):1–8
    2. ↵
      1. Bourgeois FT,
      2. Shannon MW
      . Emergency care for children in pediatric and general emergency departments. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2007;23(2):94–102pmid:17351408
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
      1. Raofi S,
      2. Schappert SM
      . Medication therapy in ambulatory medical care: United States, 2003-04. Vital Health Stat 13. 2006;(163):1–40pmid:17212167
      OpenUrlPubMed
    4. ↵
      1. Hersh AL,
      2. Shapiro DJ,
      3. Pavia AT,
      4. Shah SS
      . Antibiotic prescribing in ambulatory pediatrics in the United States. Pediatrics. 2011;128(6):1053–1061pmid:22065263
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    5. ↵
      1. Fleming-Dutra KE,
      2. Hersh AL,
      3. Shapiro DJ, et al
      . Prevalence of inappropriate antibiotic prescriptions among US ambulatory care visits, 2010-2011. JAMA. 2016;315(17):1864–1873pmid:27139059
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    6. ↵
      1. Shapiro DJ,
      2. Hicks LA,
      3. Pavia AT,
      4. Hersh AL
      . Antibiotic prescribing for adults in ambulatory care in the USA, 2007-09. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69(1):234–240pmid:23887867
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
      1. Suda KJ,
      2. Hicks LA,
      3. Roberts RM,
      4. Hunkler RJ,
      5. Danziger LH
      . A national evaluation of antibiotic expenditures by healthcare setting in the United States, 2009. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2013;68(3):715–718pmid:23148204
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
      1. Hicks LA,
      2. Chien YW,
      3. Taylor TH Jr,
      4. Haber M,
      5. Klugman KP; Active Bacterial Core Surveillance (ABCs) Team
      . Outpatient antibiotic prescribing and nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States, 1996-2003. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53(7):631–639pmid:21890767
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    9. ↵
      1. Hicks LA,
      2. Bartoces MG,
      3. Roberts RM, et al
      . US outpatient antibiotic prescribing variation according to geography, patient population, and provider specialty in 2011. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60(9):1308–1316pmid:25747410
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    10. ↵
      1. The White House
      . National action plan for combating antibiotic-resistant bacteria. 2015
    11. ↵
      1. Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America
      2. Infectious Diseases Society of America
      . Policy statement on antimicrobial stewardship by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA), the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), and the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society (PIDS). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2012;33(4):322–327pmid:22418625
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    12. ↵
      1. Mistry RD,
      2. Newland JG,
      3. Gerber JS, et al
      . Current state of antimicrobial stewardship in children’s hospital emergency departments. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2017;38(4):469–475pmid:28173888
      OpenUrlPubMed
    13. ↵
      1. Mistry RD,
      2. Dayan PS,
      3. Kuppermann N
      . The battle against antimicrobial resistance: time for the emergency department to join the fight. JAMA Pediatr. 2015;169(5):421–422pmid:25799078
      OpenUrlPubMed
    14. ↵
      1. Li J,
      2. Monuteaux MC,
      3. Bachur RG
      . Variation in pediatric care between academic and nonacademic US emergency departments, 1995-2010 [published online ahead of print January 24, 2017]. Pediatr Emerg Care. doi:10.1097/PEC.0000000000001036pmid:28121976
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    15. ↵
      1. Tang N,
      2. Stein J,
      3. Hsia RY,
      4. Maselli JH,
      5. Gonzales R
      . Trends and characteristics of US emergency department visits, 1997-2007. JAMA. 2010;304(6):664–670pmid:20699458
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    16. ↵
      1. Knapp JF,
      2. Simon SD,
      3. Sharma V
      . Variation and trends in ED use of radiographs for asthma, bronchiolitis, and croup in children. Pediatrics. 2013;132(2):245–252pmid:23878045
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    17. ↵
      1. Shah S,
      2. Bourgeois F,
      3. Mannix R,
      4. Nelson K,
      5. Bachur R,
      6. Neuman MI
      . Emergency department management of febrile respiratory illness in children. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2016;32(7):429–434pmid:27115478
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    18. ↵
      1. National Center for Health Statistics
      . Ambulatory health care data. Datasets and documentation. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ahcd/datasets_documentation_related.htm. Accessed March 11, 2018
    19. ↵
      1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
      2. National Center for Health Statistics
      . Ambulatory health care data. Data products. 2017. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ahcd/new_ahcd.htm. Accessed March 31, 2017
    20. ↵
      1. US Department of Commerce Economics and Statistics Administration
      2. US Census Bureau
      . Census regions and divisions of the United States. Available at: https://www2.census.gov/geo/pdfs/maps-data/maps/reference/us_regdiv.pdf. Accessed May 25, 2018
    21. ↵
      1. US Department of Commerce Economics and Statistics Administration
      2. US Census Bureau, Population Division.
      Annual estimates of the resident population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2017. Available at: https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=PEP_2017_PEPANNRES&prodType=table. Accessed December 4, 2018
    22. ↵
      1. Neuman MI,
      2. Shah SS,
      3. Shapiro DJ,
      4. Hersh AL
      . Emergency department management of childhood pneumonia in the United States prior to publication of national guidelines. Acad Emerg Med. 2013;20(3):240–246pmid:23517255
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    23. ↵
      1. Bekmezian A,
      2. Hersh AL,
      3. Maselli JH,
      4. Cabana MD
      . Pediatric emergency departments are more likely than general emergency departments to treat asthma exacerbation with systemic corticosteroids. J Asthma. 2011;48(1):69–74pmid:21117877
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    24. ↵
      1. Lieberthal AS,
      2. Carroll AE,
      3. Chonmaitree T, et al
      . The diagnosis and management of acute otitis media [published correction appears in Pediatrics. 2014;133(2):346]. Pediatrics. 2013;131(3). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/131/3/e964pmid:23439909
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
      1. Shulman ST,
      2. Bisno AL,
      3. Clegg HW, et al
      . Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America [published correction appears in Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58(10):1496]. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55(10):1279–1282pmid:23091044
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    26. ↵
      1. Wald ER,
      2. Applegate KE,
      3. Bordley C, et al; American Academy of Pediatrics
      . Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of acute bacterial sinusitis in children aged 1 to 18 years. Pediatrics. 2013;132(1). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/132/1/e262pmid:23796742
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    27. ↵
      1. McCaig LF,
      2. Burt CW
      . Understanding and interpreting the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: key questions and answers. Ann Emerg Med. 2012;60(6):716–721.e1pmid:23083968
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    28. ↵
      1. Fleming-Dutra KE,
      2. Shapiro DJ,
      3. Hicks LA,
      4. Gerber JS,
      5. Hersh AL
      . Race, otitis media, and antibiotic selection. Pediatrics. 2014;134(6):1059–1066pmid:25404720
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
      1. Hersh AL,
      2. Fleming-Dutra KE,
      3. Shapiro DJ,
      4. Hyun DY,
      5. Hicks LA; Outpatient Antibiotic Use Target-Setting Workgroup
      . Frequency of first-line antibiotic selection among US ambulatory care visits for otitis media, sinusitis, and pharyngitis. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176(12):1870–1872pmid:27775770
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    30. ↵
      1. Sanchez GV,
      2. Hersh AL,
      3. Shapiro DJ,
      4. Cawley JF,
      5. Hicks LA
      . Outpatient antibiotic prescribing among United States nurse practitioners and physician assistants. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2016;3(3):ofw168pmid:27704022
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    31. ↵
      1. Goyal MK,
      2. Johnson TJ,
      3. Chamberlain JM, et al; Pediatric Care Applied Research Network (PECARN)
      . Racial and ethnic differences in antibiotic use for viral illness in emergency departments. Pediatrics. 2017;140(4):e20170203pmid:28872046
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    32. ↵
      1. Mehrotra A,
      2. Gidengil CA,
      3. Setodji CM,
      4. Burns RM,
      5. Linder JA
      . Antibiotic prescribing for respiratory infections at retail clinics, physician practices, and emergency departments. Am J Manag Care. 2015;21(4):294–302pmid:26014468
      OpenUrlPubMed
    33. ↵
      1. Hasegawa K,
      2. Tsugawa Y,
      3. Cohen A,
      4. Camargo CA Jr
      . Infectious disease-related emergency department visits among children in the US. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2015;34(7):681–685pmid:25860534
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    34. ↵
      1. Vu TT,
      2. Hampers LC,
      3. Joseph MM, et al
      . Job market survey of recent pediatric emergency medicine fellowship graduates. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2007;23(5):304–307pmid:17505272
      OpenUrlPubMed
    35. ↵
      1. Dharmar M,
      2. Marcin JP,
      3. Romano PS, et al
      . Quality of care of children in the emergency department: association with hospital setting and physician training. J Pediatr. 2008;153(6):783–789pmid:18617191
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    36. ↵
      1. Nadeem Ahmed M,
      2. Muyot MM,
      3. Begum S,
      4. Smith P,
      5. Little C,
      6. Windemuller FJ
      . Antibiotic prescription pattern for viral respiratory illness in emergency room and ambulatory care settings. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2010;49(6):542–547pmid:20075029
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    37. ↵
      1. Saleh EA,
      2. Schroeder DR,
      3. Hanson AC,
      4. Banerjee R
      . Guideline-concordant antibiotic prescribing for pediatric outpatients with otitis media, community-acquired pneumonia, and skin and soft tissue infections in a large multispecialty healthcare system. Clin Res Infect Dis. 2015;2(1):1010
      OpenUrl
      1. Fleming-Dutra KE,
      2. Demirjian A,
      3. Bartoces M,
      4. Roberts RM,
      5. Taylor TH Jr,
      6. Hicks LA
      . Variations in antibiotic and azithromycin prescribing for children by geography and specialty-United States, 2013. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2018;37(1):52–58pmid:28746259
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
      1. Sanchez GV,
      2. Shapiro DJ,
      3. Hersh AL,
      4. Hicks LA,
      5. Fleming-Dutra KE
      . Outpatient macrolide antibiotic prescribing in the United States, 2008-2011. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2017;4(4):ofx220pmid:29255725
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    40. ↵
      1. Yaeger JP,
      2. Temte JL,
      3. Hanrahan LP,
      4. Martinez-Donate P
      . Roles of clinician, patient, and community characteristics in the management of pediatric upper respiratory tract infections. Ann Fam Med. 2015;13(6):529–536pmid:26553892
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    41. ↵
      1. Bradley JS,
      2. Byington CL,
      3. Shah SS, et al; Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America
      . Executive summary: the management of community-acquired pneumonia in infants and children older than 3 months of age: clinical practice guidelines by the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53(7):617–630pmid:21890766
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    42. ↵
      1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
      . Streptococcus pneumoniae, 2015. Active bacterial core surveillance report, emerging infections program network. 2015. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/abcs/reports-findings/survreports/spneu15.html. Accessed May 1, 2018
    43. ↵
      1. Ralston SL,
      2. Lieberthal AS,
      3. Meissner HC
      . Erratum for: Ralston SL, Lieberthal AS, Meissner HC, et al. Clinical practice guideline: the diagnosis, management, and prevention of bronchiolitis. Pediatrics. 2014;134(5):e1474–e1502. Pediatrics. 2015;136(4):782pmid:26430140
      OpenUrlFREE Full Text
      1. Snow V,
      2. Mottur-Pilson C,
      3. Gonzales R; American College of Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine; American Academy of Family Physicians; Centers for Disease Control; Infectious Diseases Society of America
      . Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of nonspecific upper respiratory tract infections in adults. Ann Intern Med. 2001;134(6):487–489pmid:11255525
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
      1. Hersh AL,
      2. Jackson MA,
      3. Hicks LA; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Infectious Diseases
      . Principles of judicious antibiotic prescribing for upper respiratory tract infections in pediatrics. Pediatrics. 2013;132(6):1146–1154pmid:24249823
      OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    46. ↵
      1. Irwin RS,
      2. Baumann MH,
      3. Bolser DC, et al
      . Diagnosis and management of cough executive summary: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2006;129(suppl 1):1S–23Spmid:16428686
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    47. ↵
      1. Sanchez GV,
      2. Fleming-Dutra KE,
      3. Roberts RM,
      4. Hicks LA
      . Core elements of outpatient antibiotic stewardship. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016;65(6):1–12pmid:27832047
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    48. ↵
      1. May L,
      2. Cosgrove S,
      3. L’Archeveque M, et al
      . A call to action for antimicrobial stewardship in the emergency department: approaches and strategies. Ann Emerg Med. 2013;62(1):69–77.e2
      OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    Back to top

    In this issue

    Pediatrics
    Vol. 143, Issue 2
    1 Feb 2019
    View this article with LENS
    Email Article
    Request Permissions
    Article Alerts
    Citation Tools
    Antibiotic Prescribing for Children in United States Emergency Departments: 2009–2014
    Nicole M. Poole, Daniel J. Shapiro, Katherine E. Fleming-Dutra, Lauri A. Hicks, Adam L. Hersh, Matthew P. Kronman
    Pediatrics Feb 2019, 143 (2) e20181056; DOI: 10.1542/peds.2018-1056
    del.icio.us logo Digg logo Reddit logo Twitter logo CiteULike logo Facebook logo Google logo Mendeley logo
    Print
    Download PDF
    Insight Alerts

    Jump to section

    Subjects