Article Figures & Data
Figures
- FIGURE 1
Flowchart of the study-selection process.
- FIGURE 2
Studies that examined ≥5 versus ≤1 meals.
Tables
Authors, Year of Study, Country Sample Characteristics Frequency Measurement Outcome Measurement (Obesity, Healthy Eating, Disordered Eating) Control Variables Calculated OR (95% CI)a Anderson and Whitaker9 (2010), United States Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Birth Cohort; n = 8550; 4-y-olds; 49% female; cross-sectional >5 evenings per week vs 0 Obesity: (BMI: interviewer obtained; >95th percentile classified as obese) Child age, gender, racial/ethnic group, household income/poverty ratio, single-parent household, maternal education, maternal BMI, and maternal age, obtaining sleep >10.5 h/d, <2 h of TV per weekday 0.77b FitzPatrick et al14 (2007), United States Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children; n = 1336; mean age: 2.8 y; 50% female; cross-sectional Never vs sometimes per week Healthy eating: fruits and vegetables (whether parents served fruits ≥2 times per day and vegetables≥ 2 times per day) Race/ethnicity, parental education attainment All: 1.15c Fulkerson et al20 (2006), United States n = 99 462; mean age: ∼14 y; 50% female; cross-sectional 5–7 vs 0–1 d/wk Disordered eating: binge/purge, excessive weight loss Gender, ethnicity, grade, maternal education, family structure, family support, family communication 0.65c Fulkerson et al1 (2008), United States Project Eat II; n = 2516; middle and high school students; 55% female; cross-sectional/longitudinal ≥3 d/wk vs never Overweight: ≥85th percentile (BMI: self-reported) Baseline overweight status, age, race, SES, physical activity, sedentary behavior, energy intake Cross-sectional: 0.68; longitudinal (5-y follow-up): 0.55 Fulkerson et al11 (2009), United States n = 145; mean age: 17.2 y; 48% female; cross-sectional 5–7 d/wk vs never Overweight: ≥85th percentile classified as overweight (BMI: collected by staff); disordered eating: unhealthy weight loss Race/ethnicity, age, SES, gender, random effect of school Overweight: 0.36; disordered eating: 0.38 Gable et al12 (2007), United States ECLS-K; n = 8000; mean age: 5.7 y; 52% female; longitudinal Family meals per week (composite variable) Overweight onset ≥95th percentile (BMI: collected) Maternal education and occupation, household income, gender, race, ethnicity Longitudinal (3-y follow-up): 0.93c Gillman et al15 (2000), United States Growing Up Today Study; n = 16 202; 9- to 14-y-olds; 54% female; cross-sectional Most days vs never/some days Healthy eating: eating fruits and vegetables (total of ≥5 per day), multivitamin use, soda consumption Age and gender Healthy: 1.24c; unhealthy: 0.73c Haapalahti et al18 (2003), Finland n = 404; 10- to 11-y-olds; 49% female; cross-sectional Daily/almost daily vs weekly/seldom/never Healthy eating: eating bread, fat-containing milk, butter, sweets, fast food, sugar-containing juices; not eating vegetables; not eating fruits (composite index) Gender, father's occupation, family dinner, total CBCL score Unhealthy foods: 0.29b Kusano-Tsunoh et al5 (2001), Japan n = 12 321; primary and junior high school students; 50% female; cross-sectional Almost every day/3 or 4 times per week vs never/almost never/once or twice a week Healthy eating: vegetables/fruits; unhealthy eating: snacks and cakes/soft drinks; almost everyday vs 3 or 4 times per week vs never or almost never and 1 or 2 per week Unadjusted Healthy foods: 1.09; unhealthy foods: 0.97 Mamun et al2 (2005), Australia Mater University Study of Pregnancy; n = 2335; 14-y-olds; 48% female; cross-sectional At least once per day vs a few times/once/less than once per week Overweight: ≥85th percentile (BMI measured); healthy eating: fast food and soft drinks Age, gender, being overweight at 5 y of age, maternal parity, gross family income, maternal education, race, maternal attitude toward child's consumption of fatty foods and consumption of fast food, soft drinks, and red meat, amount of TV-watching and participation in sports and exercise Overweight: 1.05; healthy eating: 0.96 Neumark-Sztainer et al21 (2008), United States Project Eat I and II; n = 2516; mean age of those starting out in middle school: 12.8 y, time 1, 17.2 y, time 2; starting out in high school: 15.8 y, time 1, and 20.4 y, time 2; 55% female; longitudinal ≥5 vs ≤5 family meals per week Disordered eating: extreme weight-control behaviors, unhealthy weight-control behavior, binge-eating, chronic dieting Gender, grade level in school, SES, BMI, ethnicity/race, family connectedness, parental encouragement to diet, specific behaviors being examined at time 1 Longitudinal (5-y follow-up): 0.98 Neumark-Sztainer et al19 (2004), United States Project EAT; n = 4746; mean age: 14.9 y; 50% female; cross-sectional ≥5 vs no family meals per week Disordered eating: extreme weight control, less extreme weight control, binge with loss of control, chronic dieting Family-connectedness, weight-specific pressures within the home, grade level, ethnicity/race, SES and BMI 0.67 Sen10 (2006), United States National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997; n = 5014; mean age: 13.33 y; cross-sectional/longitudinal 5–7 vs 0 d/wk Obesity: ≥95th percentile; at risk of overweight: BMI between 85th and 95th percentile (self-reported) Age, gender, race/ethnicity, height, attainment of puberty, SES, family connectedness, family structure, maternal education, computer in the household Cross-sectional: 0.81; longitudinal (5-y follow-up): 1.28 Taveras et al8 (2005), United States Growing Up Today Study; n = 14 431; 9- to 14-y-olds; 54% female cross-sectional/longitudinal Most vs never/some days Obesity: >85th percentile, age- and gender-specific (self-report) Age, race, baseline, and follow-up menstrual status and Tanner stage, baseline height, annual change in height, BMI z score, physical activity, inactivity, gender Cross-sectional: 0.85b; longitudinal (2-y follow-up): 0.99 Utter et al16 (2008), New Zealand Pacific Obesity Prevention in Communities Study; n = 3119; 13- to 17-y-olds; mean age: 14.8 y; 52% female; cross-sectional 5 d vs none, 3–4 d vs none Healthy eating: soda, fast food, fried food, chocolate, fruits and vegetables (≥5/d), eat breakfast Age and gender Healthy foods: 1.55b; unhealthy foods: 0.96 Videon and Manning17 (2003), United States Add Health; n = 18 177; mean age: 15.9 y; 49% female; cross-sectional 4–5 d vs 3 or fewer; 6–7 d vs 3 or fewer d/wk Healthy eating: skip breakfast, not eat ≥2 vegetables, not eat ≥2 fruits Gender, race/ethnicity, age, parental education, body-weight perception 0.66c Woodruff and Hanning13 (2009), Canada n = 3025; grades 6, 7, and 8; 51% female; cross-sectional 3–5 d vs 0–2 d per week Healthy eating: eat breakfast, soda and fast food consumption; obesity: self-reported Gender, grade level, body-weight status Healthy eating: 1.40; overweight: 1.04 EAT indicates Eating Among Teens; ECLS-K, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999; CBCL, Child Behavior Checklist.
a An OR of <1 indicates a protective factor for obesity, unhealthy eating, and eating disorders, and an OR of >1 indicates a protective factor for healthy eating.
b P < .01.
c P < .001.
No. of Meals % Increase (% Decrease) Outcome ≥3 vs <3 (12) Overweight ≥3 vs <3 (20) Eating unhealthy foods ≥3 vs <3 24 Eating healthy foods ≥5 vs ≤1 (35) Disordered eating
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Is Frequency of Shared Family Meals Related to the Nutritional Health of Children and Adolescents?
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