Published online July 14, 2008
PEDIATRICS (doi:10.1542/peds.2007-3016)
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow P3Rs: Submit a response
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when P3Rs are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow E-mail this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to My File Cabinet
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via CrossRef
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by McGovern, M. M.
Right arrow Articles by Cox, G. F.
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by McGovern, M. M.
Right arrow Articles by Cox, G. F.
Related Collections
Right arrow Neurology & Psychiatry

ARTICLE

A Prospective, Cross-sectional Survey Study of the Natural History of Niemann-Pick Disease Type B

Margaret M. McGovern, MD, PhDa, Melissa P. Wasserstein, MDb, Roberto Giugliani, MD, PhDc, Bruno Bembi, MDd, Marie T. Vanier, MD, PhDe, Eugen Mengel, MDf, Scott E. Brodie, MDg, David Mendelson, MDh, Gwen Skloot, MDi, Robert J. Desnick, PhD, MDb, Noriko Kuriyama, MAj and Gerald F. Cox, MD, PhDj,k,l

a Department of Pediatrics, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, New York
b Departments of Genetics and Genomic Sciences
g Ophthalmology
h Radiology
i Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York
c Medical Genetics Service, Hospital de Clinicas, Porto Alegre, Brazil
d Clinica Pediatrica, Instituto per I'Infanzia Burlo Garofolo, Trieste, Italy
e Laboratoire Gillet-Merieux, Centre Hospitalier Lyon-Sud, Pierre Benite, France
f Center of Pediatrics, Villa Metabolica, Hospital of the Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
j Clinical Research, Genzyme Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts
k Division of Genetics, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, Massachusetts
l Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
OBJECTIVE. The objective of this study was to characterize the clinical features of patients with Niemann-Pick disease type B and to identify efficacy end points for future clinical trials of enzyme-replacement therapy.

METHODS. Fifty-nine patients who had Niemann-Pick disease type B, were at least 6 years of age, and manifested at least 2 disease symptoms participated in this multicenter, multinational, cross-sectional survey study. Medical histories; physical examinations; assessments of cardiorespiratory function, clinical laboratory data, and liver and spleen volumes; radiographic evaluation of the lungs and bone age; and quality-of-life assessments were obtained during a 2- to 3-day period.

RESULTS. Fifty-three percent of the patients were male, 92% were white, and the median age was 17.6 years. The R608del mutation accounted for 25% of all disease alleles. Most patients initially presented with splenomegaly (78%) or hepatomegaly (73%). Frequent symptoms included bleeding (49%), pulmonary infections and shortness of breath (42% each), and joint/limb pain (39%). Growth was markedly delayed during adolescence. Patients commonly had low levels of platelets and high-density lipoprotein, elevated levels of low-density lipoprotein, very-low-density lipoprotein, triglycerides, leukocyte sphingomyelin, and serum chitotriosidase, and abnormal liver function test results. Nearly all patients had documented splenomegaly and hepatomegaly and interstitial lung disease. Patients commonly showed restrictive lung disease physiology with impaired pulmonary gas exchange and decreased maximal exercise tolerance. Quality of life was only mildly decreased by standardized questionnaires. The degree of splenomegaly correlated with most aspects of disease, including hepatomegaly, growth, lipid profile, hematologic parameters, and pulmonary function.

CONCLUSIONS. This study documents the multisystem involvement and clinical variability of Niemann-Pick B disease. Several efficacy end points were identified for future clinical treatment studies. Because of its correlation with disease severity, spleen volume may be a useful surrogate end point in treatment trials, whereas biomarkers such as chitotriosidase also may play a role in monitoring patient treatment responses.

Key Words: Niemann Pick disease • acid sphingomyelinase deficiency • lysosomal storage disorder • cross-sectional study • natural history

Abbreviations: ASM—acid sphingomyelinase • NPD— Niemann-Pick disease • IGF-1—insulin-like growth factor 1 • ECG—electrocardiography • FVC—forced vital capacity • FEV1—forced expiratory volume in 1 second • DLCO—diffusing capacity of the lung • 6MWT—6-minute walk test • HRCT—high-resolution computed tomography • MN—multiples of normal • CHQ—Child Health Questionnaire • SF-36—Short Form-36 • HDL—high-density lipoprotein


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) deficiency (sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 1, SMPD1; EC 3.1.4.12) is a rare autosomal recessive inborn error of metabolism that leads to the accumulation of sphingomyelin in cells and tissues and causes the clinical disorder known as Niemann-Pick disease (NPD).1,2 ASM deficiency is rare, with an estimated incidence of 0.4 in 100000 to 0.6 in 100000 newborns.3–5 Historically, 2 distinct subtypes have been delineated on the basis of their phenotypes (types A and B). Although NPD type C shares the same eponym as NPD caused by ASM deficiency, it is a genetically distinct disorder resulting from defective intracellular trafficking of cholesterol with secondary accumulation of glycosphingolipids. Type A disease, which has an Ashkenazi Jewish predilection, is a severe neurodegenerative disease of infancy characterized by progressive psychomotor retardation, failure to thrive, hepatosplenomegaly, cherry-red macula, and death by 3 to 4 years of age. In contrast, type B disease, which is panethnic, is characterized by hepatosplenomegaly, thrombocytopenia, interstitial lung disease, and dyslipidemia with most patients having little or no neurologic involvement. Liver dysfunction, retinal stigmata, and growth retardation also may be present but are more variable features. More recent studies suggested that there is a disease spectrum related to the amount of residual in vivo ASM activity, including intermediate neurologic forms of the disease.

The diagnosis of NPD type B is usually made in childhood after organomegaly is noted, and survival well into adulthood is known to occur commonly, although age at death and the causes of death have not been extensively studied. Currently, no specific treatment is available for ASM deficiency; however, both enzyme-replacement therapy6 and gene therapy7 have shown promising results in an SMPD1 knockout mouse model of NPD, and the first clinical trial of enzyme-replacement therapy for NPD type B has recently begun. The proper evaluation of these potential therapies requires an understanding of both the natural history of the disease and the spectrum of disease manifestations in ASM deficiency to select clinically meaningful end points.

In this article, we report the detailed clinical findings in the largest series of patients with NPD type B reported to date. We also determined whether the degree of splenomegaly, which is 1 of the cardinal features of the disease, correlates with other signs of disease severity.


   METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Study Design and Patients
Fifty-nine patients with NPD type B were enrolled in a cross-sectional survey study to provide prospective natural history data that would assist in the design of future clinical treatment trials. Patients were enrolled between May 5, 2001, and June 17, 2002, at 5 sites: the United States (n = 26), Brazil (n = 13), Italy (n = 8), France (n = 7), and Germany (n = 5). Baseline data were collected during a 2- to 3-day period. The study was approved by the institutional review board, ethics committee, or human subjects safety committee at each site, and voluntary, written informed consent was obtained from each patient and/or guardian. When appropriate, children also gave assent before any study procedures. All study procedures were conducted in accordance with good clinical practice guidelines.

Eligible patients had to be at least 6 years of age, have a diagnosis of NPD type B on the basis of marked deficiency of ASM activity in peripheral leukocytes or in cultured skin fibroblasts/lymphocytes and the presence of at least 2 characteristic clinical features, and have a negative pregnancy test if a female patient of childbearing age. Patients were excluded when they had a diagnosis of NPD type A or non–ASM-deficient NPD, such as NPD type C; had received an investigational drug within 30 days of enrollment; had a serious comorbidity or other circumstance that would interfere with study compliance; had received a bone marrow transplant; or were pregnant or lactating.

Clinical Assessments
Medical histories and physical examinations were obtained for all patients. Height and weight z scores were determined by using normative growth data from the Centers for Disease Control (www.cdc.gov/growthcharts). Neurologic examination included assessment of motor and sensory function, cranial nerves, and cognitive status. Ophthalmologic examination, including fundoscopy and retinal photographs, was performed at each site, and the findings were reviewed centrally by a single examiner (Dr Brodie). Routine clinical laboratory studies included blood chemistries, liver function tests, hematology, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and binding protein, thyrotropin, fasting lipid profile, and urinalysis. Specialized testing included SMPD1 and chitotriosidase (chitinase, CHIT1) genotyping, chitotriosidase activity, and sphingomyelin levels in plasma and peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

Cardiopulmonary status was assessed by electrocardiography (ECG), 2-dimensional echocardiography, and pulmonary function testing (forced vital capacity [FVC], forced expiratory volume in 1 second [FEV1], and diffusing capacity of the lung [DLCO]) by standard clinical techniques. Submaximal exercise tolerance was assessed by the 6-minute walk test (6MWT),8 and the values of 2 tests performed on separate days were averaged. Maximal exercise tolerance was assessed by cycle ergometry with continuous measurements of workload, oxygen (O2) uptake, carbon dioxide output, and tidal volume. FVC, FEV1, DLCO, maximum O2 uptake, and maximum carbon dioxide output were expressed as percentage of predicted values.

Imaging Studies
Imaging studies included computed tomography scan or MRI of the abdomen for liver and spleen volumes, chest radiograph and high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT), and, for 28 patients who were younger than 18 years, bone age. Liver and spleen volumes were calculated by integrating cross-sectional images and were expressed as multiples of normal (MN), assuming normal spleen and liver volumes of 0.2% and 2.5% of body weight (with 1 kg equivalent to 1 L), respectively. All image data were collected centrally by a medical imaging core laboratory, Bioimaging Technologies, Inc (Newtown, PA), and reviewed by a board-certified radiologist.

Quality-of-Life Assessment
Patient quality of life was assessed by using the Child Health Questionnaire (CHQ)9 for patients who were younger than 18 years and the Short Form-36 (SF-36)10 for adults.

Specialized Laboratory Tests
For the previously identified common mutations in the SMPD1 gene, dot-blot hybridization by using allele-specific oligonucleotides was used to screen for R496L, L302P, and fsP330 in patients from US and Brazilian sites, and a polymerase chain reaction/restriction enzyme digest test was used to screen for R608del in patients from the European sites. For patients with unidentified mutations, the entire coding and adjacent intronic splice sites of the SMPD1 gene were sequenced.11,12 The CHIT1 gene was genotyped for the common 24-base pair duplication mutation as described previously.13 Chitotriosidase activity was measured in serum using the 4-methylumbelliferyl chito-oligosaccharide assay,14 and sphingomyelin levels were quantified in plasma and peripheral blood mononuclear cells by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry.15

Statistical Analysis
Statistical analyses were performed by using SAS 8.0 software (SAS Institute, Inc, Cary, NC), and the data were summarized by using descriptive statistics. For determination of which features of NPD type B correlate with clinical severity and may be causally related, linear correlation analyses were performed by using Pearson's correlation coefficient (r). P < .05 was considered to be statistically significant, and r ≥ 0.4 was considered to be a high correlation. Twenty-four (41%) patients did not satisfactorily complete the cycle ergometry test (9 patients did not perform the test, 4 patients developed medical problems during the test, and 11 patients had submaximal effort).


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 METHODS
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Patient Characteristics and Medical History
Fifty-nine patients (31 male, 28 female) who ranged in age from 7 to 65 years (mean: 22.6 ± 13.8; median: 17.6) were enrolled in the study and evaluated. One patient discontinued the study prematurely. Thirty (51%) patients were in the pediatric age group (<18 years), and 54 (92%) patients were white. The mean age at presentation was 5.0 ± 7.0 years (median: 2.5; range: 1.0–30.0), and the mean age at diagnosis was 9.8 ± 10.9 years (median: 5.5; range: 1.0–45.1). Twenty-two (37%) patients had a family history of ASM deficiency: 21 patients with affected siblings and 1 patient with an affected cousin.

The most frequently reported initial and historical signs and symptoms are listed in Table 1. Most patients presented with splenomegaly (78%) or hepatomegaly (73%). Bleeding (49%), shortness of breath (42%), pulmonary infections (42%), and joint and/or limb pain (39%) were the most frequent historical complaints. The majority of patients had an intact spleen (92%), 1 had a partial splenectomy, and 4 had a total splenectomy. Bleeding episodes most often involved recurrent epistaxis (29%), requiring repeated cauterizations in 2 patients. Other significant bleeding events that occurred in 1 patient each were subdural hematoma, hematemesis, hemoptysis, hemothorax, excessive bleeding after tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy resulting in a blood transfusion, menorrhagia, and uterine bleeding that required a hysterectomy. Portal hypertension and esophageal varices were described for 2 patients, 1 of whom had liver failure. One patient had coronary artery disease that required triple coronary artery bypass grafting performed at age 29 and repeated at age 39. Other cardiac-related morbidities reported for single patients included aortic and mitral valve replacement because of calcification, aortic valve insufficiency, mitral valve prolapse, excess pericardial fluid, pericarditis, bradycardia, and episodic tachycardia. Two patients required supplemental oxygen, and all were ambulatory.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		TABLE 1 Presenting and Historical Signs and Symptoms

 
SMPD1 Mutation Analysis
Two mutant alleles in the SMPD1 gene were identified in all patients, and, overall, 48 different mutations were identified. The most common individual mutation was R608del (deletion of arginine at amino acid position 608), which occurred in 42% of patients and accounted for 25% of all alleles. The frequencies of all other individual mutations were <10%. Missense mutations were the most common type of genetic lesion, comprising 59% of alleles. All patients had genotypes consistent with the expression of residual ASM activity, except for 1 patient who was homozygous for a null mutation (W32X) and a second patient who was homozygous for a missense mutation that affected the initiation methionine. Although these 2 patients might have been predicted to have type A disease on the basis of the absence of the full-length, functional SMPD1 gene product, their less severe type B phenotype is presumably attributable to translation from a second initiation methionine present at codon 94 that produces a truncated enzyme with partial activity.16,17

Clinical Laboratory Evaluation
The mean complete blood cell counts, fasting lipid values, liver function tests, and hormone assay results are summarized in Table 2. Thrombocytopenia (53%) was more common than anemia (26%) or leukopenia (21%), and all hematologic abnormalities were generally mild to moderate in severity. Most patients had atherogenic lipid profiles with the most characteristic lipid abnormality being a low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) level (74% of patients) when compared with age- and gender-matched control subjects (mean: 26 mg/dL). In addition, 41% of patients had a high total cholesterol level, 62% had a high triglyceride level, 46% had a high low-density lipoprotein level, and 62% had a high very-low-density lipoprotein level compared with age- and gender-matched control subjects. The mean cholesterol/HDL level was 10.3, which is 2.3 times the upper limit of normal. The mean cholesterol/HDL ratio was nearly twice as high in patients who had undergone splenectomy compared with those with an intact spleen (17.3 vs 9.8). Alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase were elevated in approximately half of the patients, whereas total bilirubin was elevated in a third. Additional laboratory studies revealed that 18 (35%) patients had low IGF-1 levels for their age and gender, and 7 (13%) patients had elevated IGF-1 levels. Two (3%) patients had low thyrotropin levels, and 6 (10%) patients had elevated thyrotropin levels.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		TABLE 2 Laboratory Studies

 
Nearly all (95%) patients had elevated chitotriosidase levels (mean: 549 nmol/hour per mL [reference range: 0.6–98.4[). Patients with 2 normal CHIT1 genes (n = 34) had higher chitotriosidase levels than those who were heterozygous (n = 22) or homozygous (n = 2) for the null activity gene duplication. Plasma sphingomyelin levels within the reference range in all patients (mean: 221 nmol/mL [reference range: 21–413 nmol/mL]), whereas the mean sphingomyelin level in peripheral blood mononuclear cells was only mildly elevated (mean: 77 nmol/mg protein; reference range: 25–46) in 63% of patients.

Growth
Most patients had heights and weights that were below average when normalized for age and gender (Fig 1). Height z scores ranged from –4.88 to 2.14 (mean: –1.3 ± 1.51), and weight z scores ranged from –5.22 to 1.80 (mean: –0.77 ± 1.49). Twenty-nine percent of patients (n = 17) had height z scores less than –2, and 15% (n = 9) had weight z scores less than –2. Growth retardation was particularly prominent in adolescents (mean height z score: –2.60, aged 13 to < 18 years), whereas growth was in the low-normal range in both children (mean height z score: –1.40, aged < 13 years) and adults (mean height z score: –0.58, aged ≥18 years). Overall, there was a high correlation between bone age and chronological age (r = 0.512, P < .001), with the majority of adolescent patients having delayed bone ages indicative of delayed puberty.


Figure 1
View larger version (15K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 1 Growth z scores for height (left) and weight (right) versus age in male (upper) and female (lower) patients.

 
Cardiopulmonary Assessments
ECG revealed that 16 (28%) of 58 patients had abnormalities, including sinus bradycardia (n = 6), left ventricular hypertrophy (n = 4), conduction abnormalities (n = 6) including 1 with a short PR interval, and nonspecific interventricular conduction block (n = 5). Two patients, aged 48 and 58, had evidence of a previous myocardial infarction on ECG. Two-dimensional echocardiograms revealed that 50% of patients (n = 29) exhibited abnormalities. The most common finding was mild mitral valve regurgitation, and there were a few cases of mild ventricular dysfunction. Additional findings included 2 patients with moderate to severe aortic regurgitation and 1 patient with pulmonary hypertension.

Most patients had evidence of pulmonary dysfunction (Table 3). In general, patients displayed a low FVC with an FEV1/FVC ratio within the reference range and a low DLCO, which are consistent with restrictive lung disease and impaired gas exchange secondary to interstitial lung disease. Compared with patients with no shortness of breath (n = 34), patients with a history of shortness of breath (n = 25) had lower percentage of predicted FVC (mean: 76.4% vs 86.3%; P = .027) and lower percentage of predicted DLCO (51.3% vs 70.6%; P = .009). Nearly all patients (53 [90%] of 59) showed some degree of interstitial lung disease (ground-glass appearance, reticulonodular densities, pleural thickening, and low lung volumes) by both chest radiograph and HRCT.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		TABLE 3 Cardiorespiratory Function Testing in NPD Type B

 
The mean 6MWT distance (485 ± 96 meters) was within the reference range, and only 3 patients had mean 6MWT distances below the 310-m lower limit of normal for healthy adult women.9 Two patients became hypoxemic (O2 saturation < 89%) by the end of the test after walking 256 and 630 m, and both recovered within 2 minutes. Of the 59 patients, 35 (59%) satisfactorily completed the cycle ergometry test. Among these patients, the mean percentage of predicted maximum workload was 83 ± 26%, and the percentage of predicted maximum O2 uptake was 85 ± 25%, both of which are in the low-normal range. Compared with patients without shortness of breath, patients with a history of shortness of breath had a much lower mean percentage of predicted maximum workload (66% vs 92%) but more similar mean percentage of predicted maximum O2 uptake (80% vs 88%).

Neurologic Assessment and Ophthalmologic Examinations
Nearly all patients presented with normal mental status, cranial nerve function, sensation, muscle strength, and coordination. Deep tendon reflexes were normal to hypoactive. Fifteen (25%) of 59 patients had cherry-red spots, which were always bilateral. Among these 15 patients, 5 (33%) had cognitive impairment (ie, low IQ) with or without other neurologic abnormalities. Among the 44 patients without cherry-red spots, none had cognitive impairment but 5 (11%) had peripheral neuropathy.

Liver and Spleen Volumes
Among the patients who had not undergone splenectomy and available data (n = 51), the mean splenic volume was 11.1 ± 5.7 MN (range: 3.1–27.3 MN), and 84% of patients had spleen volumes >5 MN. The mean liver volume was 1.9 ± 0.7 MN (range: 0.7–3.9 MN), and 71% of patients had liver volumes >1.5 MN. Spleen volume showed no significant trend with age (P = .820), and liver volume showed only a weak correlation (r = –0.282, P = .035). Spleen volume was strongly correlated with liver volume (r = 0.760, P < .001) and triglyceride level (r = 0.545, P < .001) and negatively correlated with HDL (r = –0.620, P < .001), height z score (r = –0.509, P < .001), hemoglobin (r = –0.330, P = .019), and white blood cell count (r = –0.466, P < .001; Fig 2). Surprising, spleen volume did not correlate with platelet count (r = –0.244, P = .088); however, larger spleen volumes were observed in patients with a history of bleeding and/or bruising compared with those without (13.4 ± 5.7 vs 9.1 ± 4.9 MN; P = .006), although their platelet counts were not significantly different (151 ± 96 x109/L vs 166 ± 64 x109/L; P = .209).


Figure 2
View larger version (20K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 2 Correlations between normalized spleen volume and liver volume (A), triglyceride levels (B), HDL (C), height z score (D), hemoglobin (E), white blood cell (WBC) count (F), platelets (G), and predicted FVC (H).

 
Splenic volume was weakly correlated with various pulmonary measures, including a positive correlation with HRCT interstitial lung disease score (r = .308, P = .033), and was negatively correlated with percentage of predicted DLCO (r = –0.306, P = .052) and percentage of predicted FVC (r = –0.346, P = .015). Splenic volume did not correlate with exercise tolerance as measured by the 6MWT distance (r = –0.260, P = .075) and percentage of predicted peak workload by cycle ergometry (r = –0.198, P = .277). Liver volume showed strong positive correlations with serum alanine aminotransferase (r = 0.597, P < .001) and aspartate aminotransferase levels (r = 0.644, P < .001).

Quality-of-Life Assessment
For the pediatric patients, the results of the CHQ-PF50 revealed that 4 of the 10 subscale scores (physical functioning, mental health, general health perceptions, and parental impact—emotional) were at least 1 SD below the general population norms, which would suggest diminished quality of life in these areas by parental reporting. The remaining subscale scores were within the reference range. For the adult patients, 7 of the 8 SF-36 subscales (physical functioning, role—physical, bodily pain, vitality, social functioning, role—emotional, and mental health) and both the physical and mental health status summary scores were within 1 SD of the US general population norms, which would indicate no significant impact of the disease in these areas or in the overall physical and mental health status of the patients. Only the general health subscale score was >1 SD below US general population norms, which would indicate that patients do not consider themselves to be as healthy as others, believe that they get sick easier than others, and expect their health to worsen over time.


   DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 
Advances in the treatment of inborn errors of metabolism include recent clinical trials of enzyme replacement, substrate deprivation, pharmacologic chaperone therapy, and the transplantation of stem cells.18–20 The rational evaluation of these approaches requires that the spectrum of disease manifestations and natural history of the disorder be clearly delineated; however, efforts to collect this information systematically for the lysosomal storage diseases have been limited, and most information about the clinical features of these disorders is available only from single case reports or small series of patients. In this study, detailed clinical data were prospectively and systematically collected on the largest series of patients with NPD type B reported to date.

As expected, patients had evidence for involvement of multiple organ systems, including abnormal growth, interstitial lung disease, and hepatosplenomegaly. In addition, there was remarkable variability in the severity of symptoms and clinical findings across patients. In this cohort, the growth z scores for adolescents were significantly below normal, whereas the z scores for children and adults were mostly in the low-normal range. Notably, the low z scores that were seen for adolescents were associated with a delayed bone age, indicating delayed puberty, and low IGF-1 levels, which may be indicative of low growth hormone levels as previously observed in a series of mostly prepubertal children with NPD type B.21 Children with Gaucher disease also experience growth retardation and delayed puberty, which have been attributed to a higher resting metabolic rate related to their organomegaly. For these children, linear growth often improves dramatically after splenectomy or enzyme-replacement therapy.22

Radiographic evidence of interstitial lung disease was present in nearly all patients studied, as previously reported23; however, in a separate report, pulmonary function and interstitial lung disease scores by HRCT showed only a weak correlation, indicating that the radiographic appearance of the lung is not a good predictor of lung function.24 Nevertheless, although the clinical presentation of the pulmonary disease was widely variable, both pulmonary function testing, which indicated restrictive lung disease physiology with impaired gas exchange, and cycle ergometry, which was subnormal in half of the patients, suggested that pulmonary disease is a common disease manifestation.

Hepatosplenomegaly also is a consistent feature of the disease, with spleen volume markedly more enlarged than liver volume (mean: 11.1 vs 1.9 MN). Notably, patients who reported a history of recurrent bleeding events tended to have larger spleen volumes but not lower platelet counts than those without a bleeding diathesis. In addition, there was no overall correlation between spleen volume and platelet count as might be expected on the basis of the pathophysiology of platelet sequestration by the spleen. Possible explanations for this finding include fluctuating platelet counts over time, decreased production by bone marrow in addition to platelet consumption, and/or platelet dysfunction with prolonged coagulation times.

The results reported here also confirm the recently reported finding of abnormal lipid profiles in carriers and in a series of pediatric patients with NPD type B, 56% of whom had evidence of early atherosclerosis by coronary artery calcium scoring.25 Lee et al26 reported a pedigree in which low HDL levels segregated with an SMPD1 mutation, lending additional support that ASM plays an important role in cholesterol homeostasis, even in heterozygous carriers. In this series, the lipid profiles were highly atherogenic with a mean total cholesterol/HDL ratio of 10.3, which is associated with a two- to threefold increased risk for coronary artery disease on the basis of the Framingham Heart Study.27 Notably, 2 patients (aged 48 and 58) showed electrocardiographic evidence of a previous myocardial infarction, and a third patient had undergone 2 triple coronary artery bypass procedures before age 40. On the basis of the data collected here, it is likely that coronary artery disease is a more common manifestation than has previously been appreciated. Also of importance is the finding that patients who had undergone splenectomy had lipid profiles that were more atherogenic than those with spleens, which may reflect acceleration of the disease secondary to the redistribution of sphingomyelin to other organs after the removal of a major depot organ.

As expected for NPD type B, only 17% of the patients exhibited neurologic features; however, ASM deficiency has a phenotype that is a continuum from the classic type A disease to a recently described intermediate group of patients with later-onset, chronic neurologic disease28–30 to classic type B disease. Cherry-red spots, an ophthalmologic finding caused by accumulation of sphingomyelin in the ganglion cells of the macula, originally were thought to reflect neurologic involvement as is typically seen in NPD type A. More recently, cherry-red spots have been reported in patients with NPD type B.31 In this study, cherry-red spots were observed in 25% of patients with NPD type B, confirming that they are not a specific indicator of clinically apparent neurologic disease. Nevertheless, they were present in all 5 patients with cognitive impairment, suggesting that although in most patients with NPD type B and central nervous system involvement it is confined to the retina, a subset of patients with cherry-red spots have clinical symptoms related to the nervous system.

The SF-36 and CHQ quality-of-life assessments revealed minimal impairment except in the general health domain. A reasonable explanation for this finding is that these generic questionnaires are insensitive measures when applied to this particular patient population. The identification of a high prevalence of symptoms, coupled with the lack of sensitivity of generic questionnaires, has prompted the development of a disease-specific questionnaire, the ASM-Health Assessment Questionnaire, which will be administered directly to patients to capture this information systematically.

Other major findings of the study include the identification of 2 potential surrogate markers of disease severity. First, the degree of splenomegaly correlated with multiple disease manifestations in other organ systems; therefore, spleen volume, which can be noninvasively measured at little risk, may be a useful surrogate marker of overall disease severity and treatment response. Similarly, chitotriosidase, which is a marker of activated macrophages, was elevated in nearly all patients. Chitotriosidase may prove to be a useful marker of disease activity as in Gaucher disease, where the level has been used to monitor patient responses to enzyme-replacement therapy.32 Approximately 5% of patients are homozygous for a common 24-base pair duplication mutation and have no demonstrable chitotriosidase activity, which has stimulated the search for other plasma biomarkers (eg, PARC/CCL18, a chemokine that is elevated in both Gaucher disease and ASM deficiency).33

As has been reported for other rare diseases, the patients in this study had a substantial interval (mean: 4.9 years) between their initial presentation and definitive diagnosis, which may explain why more than one third had an affected family member, almost always a sibling. This delay in diagnosis has important implications because specific therapies are developed for the lysosomal storage diseases, which may be most effective when initiated early in the disease before irreversible apoptosis and/or fibrosis occurs.34,35 In particular, measurement of lysosomal enzymes in patients who present with hepatosplenomegaly or other evidence of a storage disease would be an important early diagnostic test to carry out. In addition, new methods for the newborn screening of selected lysosomal storage diseases will facilitate early intervention.


   CONCLUSIONS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
 
The results of this study provide important new information about the spectrum of disease manifestations in NPD type B. The patient cohort was demographically diverse, representing patients from 5 countries on 3 continents (North America, South America, and Europe); however, ascertainment bias was likely, particularly with regard to the adult patients, who have survived longest and may represent a less severely affected cohort. For example, symptomatic pulmonary disease beginning in early childhood has been described in Saudi Arabian patients, whereas neurologic symptoms seem to be more prevalent in Eastern European adolescents and adults.28,36 Indeed, the R608del was the most common mutation found in our study patients, accounting for 25% of disease alleles compared with 12% in a worldwide study.37 Because this allele is associated with milder disease manifestations, although widely variable,38,39 it is possible that the aggregate clinical data reported here may underestimate disease severity. In addition, the data reported here are from a single time point. To study more fully the natural history of disease, serial evaluations in this large patient cohort will be conducted over several years, which will augment previously obtained longitudinal data showing a worsening of pulmonary function, decreasing platelet and white blood cell counts, and a more atherogenic lipid profile over time.40 Nevertheless, the clinical information collected for this large series of patients provides important information about the spectrum of disease manifestations, has identified major morbidities associated with the disease including some previously unrecognized manifestations, and should permit the selection of clinically meaningful end points and markers of disease severity for future therapeutic trials.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
This study was supported by Genzyme Corporation (Cambridge, MA). Dr McGovern is the recipient of Mid Career Patient-Oriented Research Career Development Award K24 RR021991-01 from the National Institutes of Health. The US patient studies were also supported by grant 5 MO1 RR00071 for the Mount Sinai General Clinical Research Center from the National Center for Research Resources, National Institutes of Health.

We acknowledge Drs Susan Richards (chitotriosidase activity and sphingomyelin analysis) and Robert Pomponio (CHIT1 genotyping) at Genzyme and Drs Calogero M. Simonaro and Edward H. Schuchman (SMPD1 genotyping of US and Brazilian patients) and Dr Christophe Marçais (SMPD1 genotyping of European patients) for expert technical assistance. We also acknowledge study site personnel and all of the patients and families who participated in this study.


   FOOTNOTES
 
Accepted Apr 3, 2008.

Address correspondence to Margaret M. McGovern, MD, PhD, Stony Brook University Medical Center, HSC T11, Room 020, Stony Brook, NY 11794. E-mail: margaret.mcgovern{at}mssm.edu

Financial Disclosure: Drs McGovern, Wasserstein, Giugliani, Bembi, Vanier, Mengel, Brodie, Mendelson, Skloot, and Desnick have performed clinical trials for Genzyme; Dr Desnick has received travel expenses for scientific presentations from, is a consultant for, and has licensed the use of recombinant human acid sphingomyelinase for the treatment of patients with Niemann-Pick disease and for Fabrazyme for Fabry Disease to Genzyme; and Mr Kuriyama and Dr Cox are employees of and hold stock in Genzyme.


What's Known on This Subject

Natural history data from small series of patients with NPD have been reported, but no systematic study to examine an international cohort has been conducted.

 

What This Study Adds

Detailed clinical data were collected on the largest series of patients with NPD type B reported to date. The results of this study provide important new information about the spectrum of disease manifestations in NPD type B.

 


   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 CONCLUSIONS
 REFERENCES
 

  1. Schuchman EH, Desnick RJ. 2001. Niemann Pick disease types A and B: acid sphingomyelinase deficiencies. In: Scriver CR, Beaudet AL, Sly WS, Valle D, eds. The Metabolic & Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease. 8th ed. New York, NY: McGraw Hill; 3589–3610
  2. Spence M, Callahan J. Sphingomyelin-Cholesterol Lipidoses: The Niemann Pick Group of Diseases. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1989
  3. Meikle P, Hopwood JJ, Clague AR, Carey WF. Prevalence of lysosomal storage disorders. JAMA. 1999;281 (3):249 –254[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Poorthuis BJ, Wevers RA, Kleijer WJ, et al. The frequency of lysosomal storage diseases in the Netherlands. Hum Genet. 1999;105 (1–2):151 –156[ISI][Medline]
  5. Pinto R, Caseiro C, Lemos M, et al. Prevalence of lysosomal storage diseases in Portugal. Eur J Hum Genet. 2004;12 (2):87 –92[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  6. Miranda SR, He X, Simonaro CM, et al. Infusion of recombinant human acid sphingomyelinase into Niemann-Pick disease mice leads to visceral, but not neurological, correction of the pathophysiology. FASEB J. 2000;14 (13):1988 –1995[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  7. Passini MA, Bu J, Fidler JA, et al. Combination brain and systemic injections of AAV provide maximal functional and survival benefits in the Niemann-Pick mouse. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007;104 (22):9505 –9510[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  8. Enright PL, Sherrill DL. Reference equations for the six-minute walk test in healthy adults. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;158 (5 pt 1):1384 –1387[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  9. Landgraf JM, Maunsell E, Speechley KN, et al. Canadian-French, German and UK versions of the Child Health Questionnaire: methodology and preliminary item scaling results. Qual Life Res. 1998;7 (5):433 –445[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  10. Ware JE Jr, Kosinski M, Gandek B, et al. The factor structure of the SF-36 Health Survey in 10 countries: results from the IQOLA Project. International Quality of Life Assessment. J Clin Epidemiol. 1998;51 (11):1159 –1165[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  11. Levran O, Desnick, RJ, Schuchman EH. Identification of a 3' acceptor splice site mutation (g2610c) in the acid sphingomyelinase gene of patients with Niemann-Pick disease. Hum Mol Genet. 1993;2 (2):205 –206[Free Full Text]
  12. Mitchell LG, Merril CR. Affinity generation of single-stranded DNA for dideoxy sequencing following the polymerase chain reaction. Anal Biochem. 1989;178 (2):239 –242[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  13. Giraldo P, Cenarro A, Alfonso P, et al. Chitotriosidase genotype and plasma activity in patients with type 1 Gaucher's disease and their relatives (carriers and non carriers). Haematologica. 2001;86 (9):977 –984[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  14. Aguilera B, Ghauharali-van der Vlugt K, Helmond MT, et al. Transglycosidase activity of chitotriosidase: improved enzymatic assay for the human macrophage chitinase. J Biol Chem. 2003;278 (42):40911 –40916[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  15. Merrill AH Jr, Sullards MC, Allegood JC, Kelly S, Wang E. Sphingolipidomics: high-throughput, structure-specific and quantitative analysis of sphingolipids by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Methods. 2005;36 (2):207 –224[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  16. Pittis MG, Ricci V, Guerci VI, et al. Acid sphingomyelinase: identification of nine novel mutations among Italian Niemann-Pick type B patients and characterization of in vivo functional in-frame start codon. Hum Mutat. 2004;24 (2):186 –187[Medline]
  17. Dardis A, Zampieri S, Filocamo M, Burlina A, Bembi B, Pittis MG. Functional in vitro characterization of 14 SMPD1 mutations identified in Italian patients affected by Niemann Pick type B disease. Hum Mutat. 2005;26 :164[Medline]
  18. Desnick RJ. Enzyme replacement and enhancement therapies for lysosomal diseases. J Inherit Metab Dis. 2004;27 (3):385 –410[Medline]
  19. Sauer M, Grewal S, Peters C. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for mucopolysaccharidoses and leukodystrophies. Klin Padiatr. 2004;216 (3):163 –168[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  20. Grabowski GA, Hopkin RJ. Enzyme therapy for lysosomal storage disease: principles, practice, and prospects. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet. 2003;4 :403 –436[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  21. Wasserstein M, Larkin AE, Glass RB, Schuchman EH, Desnick RJ, McGovern MM. Growth restriction in children with type B Niemann-Pick disease. J Pediatr. 2003;142 (4):424 –428[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  22. Kaplan P, Mazur A, Manor O, et al. Acceleration of retarded growth in children with Gaucher disease after treatment with alglucerase. J Pediatr. 1996;129 (1):149 –153[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  23. Minai OA, Sullivan EJ, Stoller JK. Pulmonary involvement in Niemann-Pick disease: case report and literature review. Respir Med. 2000;94 (12):1241 –1251[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  24. Mendelson D, Wasserstein MP, Desnick RJ, et al. Type B Niemann-Pick disease: findings at chest radiography, thin-section CT, and pulmonary function testing. Radiology. 2006;238 (1):339 –345[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  25. McGovern MM, Pohl-Worgall T, Deckelbaum RJ, et al. Lipid abnormalities in children with types A and B Niemann Pick disease. J Pediatr. 2004;145 (1):77 –81[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  26. Lee CY, Krimbou L, Vincent J, et al. Compound heterozygosity at the sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase-1 (SMPD1) gene is associated with low HDL cholesterol. Hum Genet. 2003;112 (5–6):552 –562[ISI][Medline]
  27. Kannel WB, Castelli WP, Gordon T. Cholesterol in the prediction of atherosclerotic disease: new perspectives based on the Framingham study. Ann Intern Med. 1979;90 (1):85 –91[ISI][Medline]
  28. Harzer K, Rolfs A, Bauer P, et al. Niemann-Pick disease type A and B are clinically but also enzymatically heterogeneous: pitfall in the laboratory diagnosis of sphingomyelinase deficiency associated with the mutation Q292 K. Neuropediatrics. 2003;34 (6):301 –306[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  29. Pavlù-Pereira H, Asfaw B, Poupetová H, et al. Acid sphingomyelinase deficiency: phenotype variability with prevalence of intermediate phenotype in a series of twenty-five Czech and Slovak patients—a multi-approach study. J Inherit Metab Dis. 2005;28 (2):203 –227[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  30. Wasserstein MP, Aron A, Brodie SE, Simonaro C, Desnick RJ, McGovern MM. Acid sphingomyelinase deficiency: prevalence and characterization of an intermediate phenotype of Niemann-Pick disease. J Pediatr. 2006;149 (4):554 –559[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  31. McGovern MM, Wasserstein MP, Aron A, Desnick RJ, Schuchman EH, Brodie SE. Ocular manifestations of Niemann Pick disease type B. Ophthalmology. 2004;111 (7):1424 –1427[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  32. Deegan PB, Moran MT, McFarlane I, et al. Clinical evaluation of chemokine and enzymatic biomarkers of Gaucher disease. Blood Cells Mol Dis. 2005;35 (2):259 –267[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  33. Brinkman J, Wijburg FA, Hollak CE, et al. Plasma chitotriosidase and CCL18: early biochemical surrogate markers in type B Niemann-Pick disease. J Inherit Metab Dis. 2005;28 (1):13 –20[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  34. Escolar ML, Poe MD, Provenzale JM, et al. Transplantation of umbilical-cord blood in babies with infantile Krabbe's disease. N Engl J Med. 2005;352 (20):2069 –2081[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  35. Kishnani PS, Corzo D, Nicolino M, et al. Recombinant human acid [alpha]-glucosidase: major clinical benefits in infantile-onset Pompe disease. Neurology. 2007;68 (2):99 –109[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  36. Mihaylova V, Hantke J, Sinigerska I, et al. Highly variable neural involvement in sphingomyelinase-deficient Niemann-Pick disease caused by an ancestral Gypsy mutation. Brain. 2007;130 (Pt 4):1050 –1061[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  37. Simonaro CM, Desnick RJ, McGovern MM, Wasserstein MP, Schuchman EH. The demographics and distribution of type B Niemann-Pick disease: novel mutations lead to new genotype/phenotype correlations. Am J Hum Genet. 2002;71 (6):1413 –1419[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  38. Vanier MT, Ferlinz K, Rousson R, et al. Deletion of arginine (608) in acid sphingomyelinase is the prevalent mutation among Niemann-Pick disease type B patients from northern Africa. Hum Genet. 1993;92 (4):325 –330[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  39. Volders P, Van Hove J, Lories RJU, et al. Niemann-Pick disease type B: an unusual clinical presentation with multiple vertebral fractures. Am J Med Genet. 2002;109 (1):42 –51[CrossRef][ISI][Medline]
  40. Wasserstein MP, Desnick RJ, Schuchman, et al. The natural history of type B Niemann-Pick disease: results from a 10-year longitudinal study. Pediatrics. 2004;114 (6). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/114/6/e672
PEDIATRICS (ISSN 1098-4275). ©2008 by the American Academy of Pediatrics




This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow P3Rs: Submit a response
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when P3Rs are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow E-mail this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to My File Cabinet
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via CrossRef
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by McGovern, M. M.
Right arrow Articles by Cox, G. F.
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by McGovern, M. M.
Right arrow Articles by Cox, G. F.
Related Collections
Right arrow Neurology & Psychiatry