Published online March 1, 2007
PEDIATRICS Vol. 119 No. 3 March 2007, pp. 535-543 (doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2447)
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when eLetters are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow E-mail this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in Web of Science
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to My File Cabinet
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowRequest Permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via CrossRef
Right arrow Citing Articles via Web of Science (33)
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Freeman, J. M.
Right arrow Articles by Hartman, A. L.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Freeman, J. M.
Right arrow Articles by Hartman, A. L.
Related Collections
Right arrow Nutrition & Metabolism
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Facebook   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati   Add to Twitter  
What's this?

STATE-OF-THE-ART REVIEW ARTICLE

The Ketogenic Diet: One Decade Later

John M. Freeman, MD, Eric H. Kossoff, MD and Adam L. Hartman, MD

John M. Freeman Pediatric Epilepsy Center, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland

ABSTRACT

The ketogenic diet, a high fat, adequate protein, low carbohydrate diet, has, during the past decade, had a resurgence of interest for the treatment of difficult-to-control seizures in children. This review traces its history, reviews its uses and side effects, and discusses possible alternatives and the diet’s possible mechanisms of action. Finally, this review looks toward possible future uses of the ketogenic diet for conditions other than epilepsy.

Key Words: ketogenic diet • pediatric epilepsy • mechanisms of action

Abbreviations: KD—ketogenic diet • MCT—medium-chain triglyceride • LCT—long-chain triglyceride

The ketogenic diet (KD), developed in the early 1920s, had fallen into disuse during the 1970s and 1980s with the rapid development of new anticonvulsant agents for epilepsy.1 The recent resurgence of interest and use of the diet can be dated to the American Epilepsy Society’s meeting in 1996. Currently, it is perhaps more effective than most of the newer medications.

The rediscovery of this effective therapy for childhood epilepsy has, within the past decade, had a major impact on the most difficult-to-control seizures of childhood and promises to have an impact on adults with epilepsy as well. It will, perhaps, be used for other medical conditions as well. New research into its mechanism of action shows promise in changing our thinking about cerebral metabolism and our understanding of the control of epilepsy. This review was intended to document and summarize the remarkable progress in the use and understanding of the diet over the past 10 years. However, it is important to first understand its past.

HISTORY OF THE KD

1920–1990
In the early 1920s, epilepsy was treated with the bromides and phenobarbital. Both drugs had major sedating adverse effects and were frequently ineffective in completely controlling seizures. Hugh Conklin, an osteopathic physician and faith healer in Battle Creek, Michigan, believed, without any evidence, that epilepsy was attributable to intoxication of the brain from substances coming from the intestine.2 He postulated that putting the intestine completely at rest would rid the body of the intoxication, and he thereby developed his "fasting" or "water treatment" for epilepsy. This treatment deprived the children with epilepsy of all food, giving nothing but water for as long as 25 days. In 1922, he reported a high percentage of cures, and many more children were free of seizures for prolonged periods of time.2 But even before Conklin’s report, word of his successful treatment had spread to others in more mainstream medicine.3,4

These reports promised hope for children with epilepsy and set off a flurry of clinical and research activity. Studies of the metabolic changes during fasting were undertaken in an attempt to understand the interrelationships of fat, protein, and carbohydrate metabolism. A review article at that time stated that ketone bodies caused by starvation were the immediate result of the oxidation of certain acids in the absence of sufficient glucose and postulated that they were anticonvulsant.5

Although prolonged fasting was difficult for those with severe epilepsy, it was far better than the constant seizures. The first article to suggest that a diet high in fat and low in carbohydrates could simulate the metabolic effects of starvation was published in 1921 from the Mayo Clinic.4 This diet provided adequate protein for growth, minimal carbohydrate, and the remainder of the calories as fat and was virtually identical to the KD that is used today.

Reports of the effectiveness of this new "ketogenic" diet appeared throughout the next 2 decades until phenytoin (Dilantin) was discovered in 1938, and the attention of physicians and epilepsy researchers turned from the mechanisms of action and efficacy of the diet to the development and mechanisms of action of new anticonvulsant agents.6 The era of medication treatment for epilepsy had begun, and the KD, then thought to be relatively difficult, rigid, and expensive, fell by the wayside. Encouraged by the drug companies, physicians believed that new and more effective medications were on the horizon. As pediatric neurologists and epileptologists had less and less experience with the "classical" KD, fewer children were started on it, and fewer dieticians were trained in its rigors and nuances. Therefore, the diets prescribed were often less precise, rigorous, and effective than in previous years. These failures led to the widespread opinion that the diet did not work and was very difficult to tolerate. A review of the KD in 1995 cited the feelings of many physicians that the KD was no longer justified.7

The Early 1990s
The KD had continued to be implemented in ~10 children each year at Johns Hopkins Hospital, initially under the direction of Dr Samuel Livingston and, subsequently, Dr John Freeman and their dietician Millicent Kelley.8 In the late 1980s, in response to a challenge from a recently graduated nutritionist who asked if the diet was still effective in this "era of anticonvulsant medications," Kinsman9 reviewed 58 recent patients and found that despite the use of many new anticonvulsant medications, patients with refractory seizures had the same success rate with the KD as had been reported decades earlier.

The start of the new era of the KD began with a Hollywood producer, Jim Abrahams, and his son Charlie, who was incapacitated by uncontrollable seizures that were refractory to multiple medications and other treatments. Reading about the diet, Abrahams brought his son to Johns Hopkins Hospital, and the child’s seizures were stopped completely soon after starting the diet. To make other parents aware of the KD, Abrahams created the Charlie Foundation, which published a book about the KD, now in its fourth edition,10 and made a film about the diet for parents and physicians.11 NBC filmed a network television program (Dateline) about the diet in 1994, and Abrahams created a made-for-television movie, "First Do No Harm," starring Meryl Streep. In anticipation of these events, the Charlie Foundation funded a 7-center study of the diet designed to allow these centers to treat the patients resulting from the anticipated publicity.12 The multicenter study was started in 1994 and presented to the American Epilepsy Society in 1996. The reports from the multicenter study12 and of 150 patients from Johns Hopkins13,14 were the first of an avalanche of abstracts and articles on the clinical outcomes of children who were treated with the diet, including outcomes of various aspects and modifications of the diet. The amazing increase in the number of clinical abstracts presented at the American Epilepsy Society meetings is shown in Fig 1. Considering the time involved for new anticonvulsant medications to be developed, investigated, marketed, and then widely accepted, it is difficult to imagine now that just 10 years ago was the first time in recent years that an abstract on the KD was presented at the American Epilepsy Society.


Figure 1
View larger version (13K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 1 Number of abstracts regarding the KD presented at the American Epilepsy Society annual meeting each year, 1991–2006.

 
1996–2006: The Explosion of Interest and Studies
Efficacy Demonstrated
Authors from Johns Hopkins reported the outcomes of 150 consecutive children 3, 6, and 12 months after initiating the diet,13 as well as their 3- to 6-year follow-up14 (Table 1). With an intention-to-treat methodology, these 150 children (who had averaged 410 seizures per month and whose seizures had failed to adequately improve on a mean of 6.2 medications) had a dramatic outcome. Twelve months after initiating the diet, 7% of the children were seizure free, and another 20% had a 90% decrease in seizures. Three to 6 years later, 27% of these same children had few or no seizures. Most of them were now off the diet and on fewer or even no medications.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		TABLE 1 Outcomes of a 150-Patient Cohort Using the KD at Johns Hopkins Hospital

 
Since the 1920s, reports of efficacy have been remarkably consistent across all age groups, seizure frequencies, and international locations.15–18 In general, 10%–15% of children who initiated the diet were seizure free 1 year later, 30% had a >90% reduction in seizures, and 40% to 50% found that the diet was either too difficult to continue or insufficiently effective and therefore discontinued it during the first 6 months.

Although over the past decade there has been a dramatic increase in the number of anticonvulsant drugs available, the KD continues to demonstrate a higher degree of effectiveness, even in children whose seizures are refractory to these newer medications. Several recent meta-analyses have examined the publications about the diet and, although finding a lack of prospective controlled studies, found an enormous amount of prospective uncontrolled and retrospective evidence.15–18 Nearly all reviews have stated that despite the lack of class I and II data, the scientific basis for the diet is strong and future studies should help identify ideal candidates and ways to improve tolerability rather than solely to prove the diet’s efficacy in a controlled manner.18

Rise in Usage Internationally
Ten years ago the KD was nearly unknown internationally. In the past 8 years there has been a dramatic increase in its use worldwide, and currently ~75 centers in 45 countries offer the KD.19 With the exception of parts of Central America and Africa, parents only need look to their country or a neighbor for a KD center. There have been sponsored conferences and symposia in Canada, Croatia, Cuba, England, Germany, Greece, India, and Italy in the past 2 years alone.

Cultural, religious, and financial differences among these centers have led to differences in approaches to providing the KD. Some use less or no fasting, some use different ratios (to encompass more rice and less fat in some countries in the East), and some allow increased fluid and calorie consumption.19 These practices have led to insights into other methods for providing the KD that will be discussed later in this review. It should be noted that especially in developing nations, the KD may be a cost-effective epilepsy therapy when compared with the rising costs of anticonvulsant medications.

Challenges and Changes to the Traditional Diet Protocol
The Johns Hopkins protocol10 for initiating and maintaining the KD has been gradually modified both at Johns Hopkins and other centers and is continually evolving. Highlights of its evolution and changes are shown in Table 2.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		TABLE 2 Factors Involved in KD Initiation and Maintenance, With Changes Described

 
Recent studies have demonstrated that the diet may not require a fasting phase at initiation and may be initiated either with full calories20,21 or without an admission to the hospital.22,23 However, many centers still use at least some fasting periods because of the occasional immediate benefits seen for some children. We have observed a dramatic effect of fasting similar to a "loading" dose of intravenous anticonvulsant agents.24 Most centers still admit children to observe their initial response to the diet and possible immediate adverse effects.

Alternative KDs
The medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) diet uses fat sources that are more ketogenic than the saturated long-chain triglycerides (LCTs) typically consumed in the traditional KD, thus allowing more carbohydrates to be incorporated into the diet.25–27 A trial comparing the MCT diet, classic LCT diet, and a modification of the 2 (the Radcliff diet) found they were of roughly equal efficacy, but the MCT diet had a higher incidence of abdominal cramps, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting.27 Occasionally we add small quantities of MCT oil to the classic KD to alleviate constipation and dyslipidemia. An ongoing trial is investigating the LCT and MCT diets in a randomized manner (J.H. Cross, MD, personal communication, 2006).

A modified Atkins diet also is emerging as a possible alternative dietary treatment for seizures.28,29 With restriction of carbohydrates (10–20 g per day), the Atkins diet can induce ketosis and does not restrict protein, fluid, or calories and does not require an admission or a fast. In a follow-up study, 65% of patients on the Atkins diet had a >50% reduction in seizures and 6 (35%) had a >90% reduction.29 Additional studies of the modified Atkins diet are underway including adult patients with epilepsy.

A third diet is the low glycemic index diet,30 in which fruits, breads, and starches are discouraged. This diet has even fewer carbohydrate restrictions than the modified Atkins diet.

Who Are the Best Candidates for the Diet?
The efficacy of the diet is independent of the type of seizure and is effective for both generalized and partial seizures13 at varied ages.31–35 Some refractory disorders that respond to the diet include Dravet syndrome,36 myoclonic-astatic epilepsy,37–39 Rett syndrome,40,41 migrational disorders,42 and tuberous sclerosis complex.43,44 The KD may be particularly helpful in the treatment of infantile spasms, especially when used earlier in the course of the disorder.31,45 Formula-based diets, whether fed via bottle or gastrostomy tube, have shown improved compliance as well as efficacy.46,47 Although no one particular anticonvulsant medication has been described as specifically beneficial in combination with the diet, the use of the diet in combination with vagus nerve stimulation may be synergistic.48

Patients with partial-onset (focal) seizures seem less likely to either improve significantly or become permanently seizure free.49,50 Children with a demonstrated, surgically approachable focus may respond to the diet but have less likelihood of either >90% seizure reduction or actual seizure freedom (unpublished data). In a limited case series, Lafora body disease did not respond well to the diet.51

Mechanisms of Action of the Diet
The mechanism(s) through which the KD exerts its anticonvulsant effects remains elusive. Although there is an abundance of data regarding the physiologic effects a KD exerts on humans and rodents, how these effects contribute to seizure protection is unclear. The diet has both anticonvulsant (ie, stopping a discrete seizure) properties and antiepileptic (ie, stopping the propensity to develop recurrent unprovoked seizures, or epilepsy) effects. The latter is suggested by series that examined the diet’s potential disease-modifying effects in patients who discontinued the diet, sometimes after only months, yet still enjoyed long-term freedom from seizures.14,52

Anticonvulsant effects of the KD have been studied primarily in models of nonepileptic rodents receiving a KD and later exposed to proconvulsant agents or electrical stimuli (eg, pentylenetetrazol, maximal electroshock).53,54 Studies in mice that examined changes in glutamate (eg, the primary central nervous system excitatory neurotransmitter) and {gamma}-aminobutyric acid (GABA) (eg, the primary central nervous system inhibitory neurotransmitter) suggested a key role for the KD in protection from seizures.55 Although actual levels of these neurotransmitters may not be elevated, there is a suggestion that flux through the GABA shunt may be increased, thus favoring inhibition of aberrant neuronal firing.56 Changes in levels of GABA (measured by magnetic resonance spectroscopy) and other cerebrospinal fluid amino acids have been documented in patients on the KD, which suggests that they may play a role in seizure protection.57,58

Changes in mitochondrial biogenesis (eg, increased metabolic enzymes and mitochondrial number) also have been documented, reviving an old hypothesis that changes in cellular metabolism may modify the cellular milieu into a less hyperexcitable (and hence, less epileptiform) state.54,59 Early work on the KD suggested that ketone bodies, especially β-hydroxybutyrate, might be anticonvulsant.25 Subsequent in vitro work argued against this idea, but acetone (another ketone body), initially believed to be unimportant because of its volatility, has anticonvulsant properties.60–62

The KD may also have antiepileptic effects. One speculation is that the antiepileptic effect is exerted via neuroprotection, but the mechanism for this is unclear. Neuroprotection may involve either protection from free oxygen radicals or prevention of apoptosis. Protection from free radicals may be provided via a decrease in coenzyme Q semiquinone,63 elevated mitochondrial uncoupling proteins, or elevated glutathione peroxidase. Uncoupling proteins, shown to be induced in mice that consume a KD, dissipate the mitochondrial membrane potential, thus protecting against free radical damage.64 The mechanism of this induction might be via fatty acids, which are elevated in the serum of patients on the KD.42,65 The KD also induces glutathione peroxidase, which subsequently prevents damage to the cell membrane caused by lipid peroxidation.66 The KD may protect against apoptosis via increased levels of the protective protein calbindin or prevention of the accumulation of the pro–cell-death protein clusterin.67,68 Very recent work has shown the role of 2-deoxyglucose, an inhibitor of glycolysis, in protection from seizures.69 Reports of its anticonvulsant and antiepileptic properties suggest that there may be antiglycolytic compounds which may possibly mimic some of the mechanisms of action of the KD and constitute a new class of drugs for treating epilepsy. Additional investigations into the mechanism(s) of action of the KD may lead to answers not only as to why it works but also what may cause seizures and epilepsy to develop.

Adverse Effects of the Diet
Adverse effects of the KD only infrequently require the diet to be discontinued but are important for neurologists and pediatricians to recognize. Early-onset adverse effects associated with diet initiation include acidosis, hypoglycemia, gastrointestinal distress, dehydration, and lethargy. They are typically transient and easily managed and are minimized if patients are not fasted. Later adverse effects include dyslipidemia, kidney stones, and slowing of growth.

Cholesterol and lipids are adversely affected on the diet. The most extensive study of dyslipidemia on the diet followed 141 children prospectively over 2 years.70 In these children, there was an increase in atherogenic apoB-containing lipoproteins very low-density lipoprotein and low-density lipoprotein and a decrease in the antiatherogenic high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Cholesterol increased ~130% but then stabilized over the 2-year period. It is interesting to note that the lipid profiles of children on the KD >6 years returned toward baseline.71 The long-term effects of these changes in lipids, if any, are unknown, but it should be recalled that most patients remain on the diet for only 2 years and then return to a diet with normal fat ingestion.

Kidney stones occur in 5% of children on the KD and is thought to be secondary to a combination of acidosis, urine acidification, hypercalciuria, and hypocitraturia.72 Although anticonvulsant agents with carbonic anhydrase-inhibition properties (topiramate and zonisamide) have an independent risk of stones, the combined prevalence with the diet was not higher than either therapy alone.73 The risk of stones has significantly decreased since the prophylactic use of oral potassium citrate (Polycitra K) to alkalinize the urine.74

Children on the diet grow normally, but the growth of younger children seems to be slowed more than that of older children.75 Those on the diet for >6 years were typically in the <10th percentile for height and weight.71 Growth seems to increase rapidly after diet discontinuation.76 Children on the KD are monitored carefully and regularly by a registered dietitian for weight and height slowing.

Bone density may be decreased by the KD. A higher risk of skeletal fractures in children on the KD has been reported.71,77,78 Prevention with calcium supplementation, pamidronate, or lower KD ratios remain unproven.

Deaths have been reported in patients on the diet, although it is unclear that any of the deaths have been a result of the diet.

It is clear that the success and safety of the diet are best achieved by the close supervision of the patient by an experienced team that includes the physician, the dietician, and, often, a nurse.

Other Uses Beyond Epilepsy
Multiple uses of the KD are being investigated. All reported studies to date are very preliminary but are discussed in this review to indicate possible future uses of the diet. Neurodegenerative disorders provide a unique opportunity to study cellular protection via dietary means. In fact, the mechanism of the KD in neuroprotection might be more straightforward than its mechanism of protection against seizures.

Parkinson disease may be partly attributable to dysfunction of mitochondrial complex I.79 The KD, which effectively bypasses the requirement for complex I, may provide an alternative pathway for normal cellular metabolism. This notion served as the rationale for a case series that showed some improvement in clinical rating scales in 7 adults with Parkinson disease who consumed a KD for 28 days.80 Although the hypothesis that bypassing complex I is an attractive one, it is possible that lower dietary protein levels and weight loss in patients on the diet simply improved the patients’ baseline levodopa pharmacokinetics.81

A KD reduced amyloid-β 40 and 42 in a mouse model of Alzheimer disease.82 Administration of a KD for 43 days was associated with a decrease in the amount of total brain amyloid-β content, although performance on an object-recognition task was unchanged. The KD also was associated with delayed progressive motor neuron loss and improved performance on a motor task (compared with controls) in a transgenic mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, with in vitro data again showing a protective effect of β-hydroxybutyrate.83 The KD was associated with decreased cortical contusion volumes 7 days after a standardized controlled cortical impact in rats of specific pediatric ages.84 A key role for ketone bodies was suggested in a study that showed improved adenosine triphosphate production in the same trauma model after an infusion of β-hydroxybutyrate.85

The KD has been reported to have decreased tumor size in 2 patients with astrocytomas86 and recently has been shown to inhibit brain tumor growth in a mouse model of an astrocytoma.87 Ketosis may also improve migraine headaches in a manner similar to the beneficial preventive effect of many anticonvulsant drugs.88 The Atkins diet has been reportedly effective for narcolepsy in a small case series, as well.89

Psychiatric disorders have also been treated with the KD. Recent studies have demonstrated its use for autism and depression.90,91 The mechanism of action of the KD for psychiatric disorders is unclear.

In addition, the diet may have uses beyond neurologic disorders. Very preliminary studies indicate that the KD may be useful in conditions that involve an imbalance of glucose metabolism, including type 2 diabetes mellitus and polycystic ovary syndrome.92,93 The diet has been described for use in hypercholesterolemia.94

CONCLUSIONS

The past decade has been an amazing one for those interested in the KD. Its increasing use in children with difficult-to-control seizures has opened new vistas for these children and also for our understanding of epilepsy. Its potential use in adults by using a less restrictive Atkins diet may make a difference to this population as well. The diet’s documented efficacy and tolerability have opened new horizons as it is tried for a variety of ills from brain tumors to migraine, and from head trauma to neurodegenerative diseases. Most exciting is the realization that beliefs concerning a high-fat diet making people fat and dyslipidemic have been proven false. Researchers are rediscovering that ketone bodies are not necessarily bad and that glucose is not necessarily good. A whole new era of metabolic research has opened up. It is not completely clear where it will lead, but its promise is exciting.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Dr Hartman was supported by the Epilepsy Foundation through the generous support of Pfizer, Inc.

FOOTNOTES

Accepted Oct 18, 2006.

Address correspondence to John M. Freeman, MD, John M. Freeman Pediatric Epilepsy Center, Departments of Neurology and Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, MD 21287-7247. E-mail: jfreeman{at}jhmi.edu

The authors have indicated they have no financial relationships relevant to this article to disclose.

REFERENCES

  1. Swink TD, Vining EP, Freeman JM. The ketogenic diet: 1997. Adv Pediatr. 1997;44 :297 –329[Medline]
  2. Conklin HW. Cause and treatment of epilepsy. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 1922;26 :11 –14
  3. Geyelin HR. Fasting as a method for treating epilepsy. Med Rec. 1921;99 :1037 –1039
  4. Wilder RM. The effect of ketonemia on the course of epilepsy. Mayo Clin Bull. 1921;2 :307
  5. Gamble JL, Ross GS, Tisdall FF. The metabolism of fixed base during fasting. J Biol Chem. 1923;57 :633 –695[Free Full Text]
  6. Peterman MG. The ketogenic diet in the treatment of epilepsy: a preliminary report. Am J Dis Child. 1924;28 :28 –33[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  7. Wheless JW. The ketogenic diet: fa(c)t or fiction. J Child Neurol. 1995;10 :419 –423[Free Full Text]
  8. Livingston S, Pauli LL, Pruce I. Ketogenic diet in the treatment of childhood epilepsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1977;19 :833 –834[Web of Science]
  9. Kinsman SL, Vining EP, Quaskey SA, Mellits D, Freeman JM. Efficacy of the ketogenic diet for intractable seizure disorders: review of 58 cases. Epilepsia. 1992;33 :1132 –1136[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  10. Freeman JM, Kossoff EH, Freeman JB, Kelly MT. The Ketogenic Diet: A Treatment for Children and Others With Epilepsy. 4th ed. New York, NY: Demos; 2006
  11. Abrahams J. An Introduction to the Ketogenic Diet: A Treatment for Pediatric Epilepsy [videotape]. Santa Monica, CA: Charlie Foundation; 2000
  12. Vining EPG, Freeman JM, Ballaban-Gil K, et al. A multicenter study of the efficacy of the ketogenic diet. Arch Neurol.1998;55 :1433 –1437[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  13. Freeman JM, Vining EP, Pillas DJ, Pyzik PL, Casey JC, Kelly LM. The efficacy of the ketogenic diet: 1998—a prospective evaluation of intervention in 150 children. Pediatrics. 1998;102 :1358 –1363[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  14. Hemingway C, Freeman JM, Pillas DJ, Pyzik PL. The ketogenic diet: a 3- to 6-year follow-up of 150 children enrolled prospectively. Pediatrics. 2001;108 :898 –905[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  15. Levy R, Cooper P: Ketogenic diet for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(3) :CD001903[Medline]
  16. Lefevre F, Aronson A. Ketogenic diet for the treatment of refractory epilepsy in children: a systematic review of efficacy. Pediatrics. 2000;105(4) . Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/105/4/e46
  17. Keene DL. A systematic review of the use of the ketogenic diet in childhood epilepsy. Pediatr Neurol. 2006;35 :1 –5[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  18. Henderson CB, Filloux FM, Alder SC, Lyon JL, Caplin DA. Efficacy of the ketogenic diet as a treatment option for epilepsy: meta-analysis. J Child Neurol. 2006;21 :193 –198[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  19. Kossoff EH, McGrogan JR. Worldwide use of the ketogenic diet. Epilepsia. 2005;46 :280 –289[Web of Science][Medline]
  20. Bergqvist CAG, Schall JI, Gallagher PR, Cnaan A, Stallings VA. Fasting versus gradual initiation of the ketogenic diet: a prospective, randomized clinical trial of efficacy. Epilepsia. 2005;46 :1810 –1819[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  21. Kim DW, Kang HC, Park JC, et al. Benefits of the nonfasting diet compared with the initial fasting ketogenic diet. Pediatrics. 2004;114 :1627 –1630[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  22. Vaisleib II, Buchhalter JR, Zupanc ML. Ketogenic diet: outpatient initiation, without fluid, or caloric restrictions. Pediatr Neurol. 2004;31 :198 –202[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  23. Wirrell EC, Darwish HZ, Williams-Dyjur C, Blackman M, Lange V. Is a fast necessary when initiating the ketogenic diet? J Child Neurol. 2002;17 :179 –182[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  24. Freeman JM, Vining EP. Seizures decrease rapidly after fasting: preliminary studies of the ketogenic diet. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1999;153 :946 –949[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  25. Huttenlocher PR, Wilbourn AJ, Signore JM. Medium-chain triglycerides as a therapy for intractable childhood epilepsy. Neurology. 1971;21 :1097 –1103[Free Full Text]
  26. Trauner, D. A. Medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) diet in intractable seizure disorders. Neurology. 1985;35 :237 –238[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  27. Schwartz RH, Eaton J, Bower BD, Aynsley-Green A. Ketogenic diets in the treatment of epilepsy: short-term clinical effects. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1989;31 :145 –151[Web of Science][Medline]
  28. Kossoff EH, Krauss GL, McGrogan JR. Efficacy of the Atkins diet as therapy for intractable epilepsy. Neurology. 2003;61 :1789 –1791[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  29. Kossoff EH, McGrogan JR, Bluml RM, Pillas DJ, Rubenstein JE, Vining EP. A modified Atkins diet is effective for the treatment of intractable pediatric epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2006;47 :421 –424[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  30. Pfeifer HH, Thiele EA. Low-glycemic-index treatment: a liberalized ketogenic diet for treatment of intractable epilepsy. Neurology. 2005;65 :1810 –1812[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  31. Kossoff EH, Pyzik PL, McGrogan JR, Vining EPG, Freeman JM. Efficacy of the ketogenic diet for infantile spasms. Pediatrics. 2002;109 :780 –783[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  32. Nordli DR Jr, Kuroda MM, Carroll J, et al. Experience with the ketogenic diet in infants. Pediatrics. 2001;108 :129 –133[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  33. Klepper J, Leiendecker B, Bredahl R, et al. Introduction of a ketogenic diet in young infants. J Inherit Metab Dis. 2002;25 :449 –460[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  34. Mady MA, Kossoff EH, McGregor AL, Wheless JW, Pyzik PL, Freeman JM. The ketogenic diet: adolescents can do it, too. Epilepsia. 2003;44 :847 –851[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  35. Sirven J, Whedon B, Caplan D, et al. The ketogenic diet for intractable epilepsy in adults: preliminary results. Epilepsia. 1999;40 :1721 –1726[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  36. Caraballo RH, Cersosimo RO, Sakr D, Cresta A, Escobal N, Fejerman N. Ketogenic diet in patients with Dravet syndrome. Epilepsia. 2005;46 :1539 –1544[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  37. Caraballo RH, Cersosimo RO, Sakr D, Cresta A, Escobal N, Fejerman N. Ketogenic diet in patients with myoclonic-astatic epilepsy. Epileptic Disord. 2006;8 :151 –155[Web of Science][Medline]
  38. Laux LC, Devonshire KA, Kelley KR, et al. Efficacy of the ketogenic diet in myoclonic-epilepsy of Doose [abstract]. Epilepsia. 2004;45(suppl 7) :251
  39. Oguni H, Tanaka T, Hayashi K, et al. Treatment and long-term prognosis of myoclonic-astatic epilepsy of early childhood. Neuropediatrics. 2002;33 :122 –132[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  40. Haas RH, Rice MA, Trauner DA, Merritt TA. Therapeutic effects of a ketogenic diet in Rett syndrome. Am J Med Genet Suppl. 1986;1 :225 –246[CrossRef][Medline]
  41. Liebhaber GM, Reimann E, Baumeister FA. Ketogenic diet in Rett syndrome. J Child Neurol. 2003;18 :74 –75[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  42. Freeman J, Veggiotti P, Lanzi G, Tagliabue A, Perucca E; Institute of Neurology IRCCS C. Mondino Foundation. The ketogenic diet: from molecular mechanisms to clinical effects. Epilepsy Res. 2006;68 :145 –180[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  43. Kossoff EH, Thiele EA, Pfeifer HH, McGrogan JR, Freeman JM. Tuberous sclerosis complex and the ketogenic diet. Epilepsia. 2005;46 :1684 –1686[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  44. Coppola G, Klepper J, Ammendola E, et al. The effects of the ketogenic diet in refractory partial seizures with reference to tuberous sclerosis. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2006;10 :148 –151[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  45. Eun SH, Kang HC, Kim DW, Kim HD. Ketogenic diet for treatment of infantile spasms. Brain Dev. 2006;28 :566 –571[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  46. Kossoff EH, McGrogan JR, Freeman JM. Benefits of an all-liquid ketogenic diet. Epilepsia. 2004;45 :1163[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  47. Hosain SA, La-Vega-Talbott M, Solomon GE. Ketogenic diet in pediatric epilepsy patients with gastrostomy feeding. Pediatr Neurol. 2005;32 :81 –83[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  48. Kossoff EH, Pyzik PL, Rubenstein JE, et al. Combination ketogenic diet and vagus nerve stimulation: rational polytherapy? Epilepsia. 2007; In press
  49. Than KD, Kossoff EH, Rubenstein JE, Pyzik PL, McGrogan JR, Vining EP. Can you predict an immediate, complete, and sustained response to the ketogenic diet? Epilepsia.2005;46 :580 –582[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  50. Maydell BV, Wyllie E, Akhtar N, et al. Efficacy of ketogenic diet in focal versus generalized seizures. Pediatr Neurol. 2001;25 :208 –212[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  51. Cardinali S, Canafoglia L, Bertoli S, et al. A pilot study of a ketogenic diet in patients with Lafora body disease. Epilepsy Res. 2006;69 :129 –134[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  52. Marsh EB, Freeman JM, Kossoff EH, et al. The outcome of children with intractable seizures: a 3- to 6-year follow-up of 67 children who remained on the ketogenic diet less than one year. Epilepsia. 2006;47 :425 –430[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  53. Bough KJ, Eagles DA. A ketogenic diet increases the resistance to pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures in the rat. Epilepsia. 1999;40 :138 –143[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  54. Appleton DB, DeVivo DC. An animal model for the ketogenic diet. Epilepsia. 1974;15 :211 –227[Web of Science][Medline]
  55. Yudkoff M, Daikhin Y, Nissim I, Lazarow A, Nissim I. Ketogenic diet, brain glutamate metabolism and seizure control. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2004;70 :277 –285[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  56. Erecinska M, Nelson D, Daikhin Y, Yudkoff M. Regulation of GABA level in rat brain synaptosomes: fluxes through enzymes of the GABA shunt and effects of glutamate, calcium, and ketone bodies. J Neurochem. 1996;67 :2325 –2334[Web of Science][Medline]
  57. Wang ZJ, Bergqvist C, Hunter JV, et al. In vivo measurement of brain metabolites using two-dimensional double-quantum MR spectroscopy: exploration of GABA levels in a ketogenic diet. Magn Reson Med. 2003;49 :615 –619[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  58. Dahlin M, Elfving A, Ungerstedt U, Amark P. The ketogenic diet influences the levels of excitatory and inhibitory amino acids in the CSF in children with refractory epilepsy. Epilepsy Res. 2005;64 :115 –125[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  59. Bough KJ, Wetherington J, Hassel B, et al. Mitochondrial biogenesis in the anticonvulsant mechanism of the ketogenic diet. Ann Neurol. 2006;60 :223 –235[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  60. Thio LL, Wong M, Yamada KA. Ketone bodies do not directly alter excitatory or inhibitory hippocampal synaptic transmission. Neurology. 2000;54 :325 –331[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  61. Rho JM, Anderson GD, Donevan SD, White HS. Acetoacetate, acetone, and dibenzylamine (a contaminant in l-(+)-beta-hydroxybutyrate) exhibit direct anticonvulsant actions in vivo. Epilepsia. 2002;43 :358 –361[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  62. Likhodii SS, Serbanescu I, Cortez MA, Murphy P, Snead OC 3rd, Burnham WM. Anticonvulsant properties of acetone, a brain ketone elevated by the ketogenic diet. Ann Neurol. 2003;54 :219 –226[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  63. Veech RL. The therapeutic implications of ketone bodies: the effects of ketone bodies in pathological conditions: ketosis, ketogenic diet, redox states, insulin resistance, and mitochondrial metabolism. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2004;70 :309 –319[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  64. Sullivan PG, Rippy NA, Dorenbos K, Concepcion RC, Agarwal AK, Rho JM. The ketogenic diet increases mitochondrial uncoupling protein levels and activity. Ann Neurol. 2004;55 :576 –580[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  65. Fraser DD, Whiting S, Andrew RD, Macdonald EA, Musa-Veloso K, Cunnane SC. Elevated polyunsaturated fatty acids in blood serum obtained from children on the ketogenic diet. Neurology. 2003;60 :1026 –1029[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  66. Ziegler DR, Ribeiro LC, Hagenn M, et al. Ketogenic diet increases glutathione peroxidase activity in rat hippocampus. Neurochem Res. 2003;28 :1793 –1797[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  67. Noh HS, Kim DW, Kang SS, Cho GJ, Choi WS. Ketogenic diet prevents clusterin accumulation induced by kainic acid in the hippocampus of male ICR mice. Brain Res. 2005;1042 :114 –118[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  68. Noh HS, Kang SS, Kim DW, et al. Ketogenic diet increases calbindin-D28k in the hippocampi of male ICR mice with kainic acid seizures. Epilepsy Res. 2005;65 :153 –159[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  69. Garriga-Canut M, Schoenike B, Qazi R, et al. 2-Deoxy-D-glucose reduces epilepsy progression by NRSF-CtBP-dependent metabolic regulation of chromatin structure. Nat Neurosci. 2006;9 :1382 –1387[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  70. Kwiterovich PO Jr, Vining EP, Pyzik P, Skolasky R Jr, Freeman JM. Effect of a high-fat ketogenic diet on plasma levels of lipids, lipoproteins, and apolipoproteins in children. JAMA. 2003;290 :912 –920[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  71. Groesbeck DK, Bluml RM, Kossoff EH. Long-term use of the ketogenic diet in the treatment of epilepsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48 :978 –981[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  72. Furth SL, Casey JC, Pyzik PL, et al. Risk factors for urolithiasis in children on the ketogenic diet. Pediatr Nephrol. 2000;15 :125 –128[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  73. Kossoff EH, Pyzik PL, Furth SL, Hladky HD, Freeman JM, Vining EPG. Kidney stones, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, and the ketogenic diet. Epilepsia. 2002;43 :1168 –1171[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  74. Sampath A, Kossoff EH, Furth SL, Pyzik PL, Vining EP. Kidney stones and the ketogenic diet: risk factors and prevention. J Child Neurol. 2007; In press
  75. Vining EP, Pyzik P, McGrogan J, et al. Growth of children on the ketogenic diet [abstract]. Dev Med Child Neurol.2002;44 :796 –802[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  76. Liu TC, Megan P, Campbell K, Curtis R. A retrospective study: growth status of children with epilepsy post treatment with the ketogenic diet [abstract]. Epilepsia. 2005;46(suppl 8) :155
  77. Hahn TJ, Halstead LR, DeVivo DC. Disordered mineral metabolism produced by ketogenic diet therapy. Calcif Tissue Int. 1979;28 :17 –22[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  78. Bertoli S, Striuli L, Testolin G, et al. Nutritional status and bone mineral mass in children treated with ketogenic diet [in Italian]. Recenti Prog Med. 2002;93 :671 –675[Medline]
  79. Greenamyre JT, Sherer TB, Betarbet R, Panov AV. Complex I and Parkinson’s disease. IUBMB Life. 2001;52 :135 –141[Web of Science][Medline]
  80. Vanitallie TB, Nonas C, Di Rocco A, Boyar K, Hyams K, Heymsfield SB. Treatment of Parkinson disease with diet-induced hyperketonemia: a feasibility study. Neurology. 2005;64 :728 –730[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  81. Jabre MG, Bejjani BP. Treatment of Parkinson disease with diet-induced hyperketonemia: a feasibility study. Neurology. 2006;66 :617[Free Full Text]
  82. Van der Auwera I, Wera S, Van Leuven F, Henderson ST. A ketogenic diet reduces amyloid beta 40 and 42 in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2005;2 :28[CrossRef][Medline]
  83. Zhao Z, Lange DJ, Voustianiouk A, et al. A ketogenic diet as a potential novel therapeutic intervention in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. BMC Neurosci. 2006;7 :29[CrossRef][Medline]
  84. Prins ML, Fujima LS, Hovda DA. Age-dependent reduction of cortical contusion volume by ketones after traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci Res. 2005;82 :413 –420[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  85. Prins ML, Lee SM, Fujima LS, Hovda DA. Increased cerebral uptake and oxidation of exogenous betaHB improves ATP following traumatic brain injury in adult rats. J Neurochem. 2004;90 :666 –672[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  86. Nebeling LC, Miraldi F, Shurin SB, Lerner E. Effects of a ketogenic diet on tumor metabolism and nutritional status in pediatric oncology patients: two case reports. J Am Coll Nutr. 1995;14 :202 –208[Abstract]
  87. Seyfried TN, Sanderson TM, El-Abbadi MM, McGowan R, Mukherjee P. Role of glucose and ketone bodies in the metabolic control of experimental brain cancer. Br J Cancer. 2003;89 :1375 –1382[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  88. Strahlman RS. Can ketosis help migraine sufferers? A case report. Headache. 2006;46 :182[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  89. Husain AM, Yancy WS Jr, Carwile ST, Miller PP, Westman EC. Diet therapy for narcolepsy. Neurology. 2004;62 :2300 –2302[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  90. Evangeliou A, Vlachonikolis I, Mihailidou H, et al. Application of a ketogenic diet in children with autistic behavior: pilot study. J Child Neurol. 2003;18 :113 –118[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  91. Murphy P, Likhodii S, Nylen K, Burnham WM. The antidepressant properties of the ketogenic diet. Biol Psychiatry. 2004;56 :981 –983[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  92. Yancy WS Jr, Foy M, Chalecki AM, Vernon MC, Westman EC. A low-carbohydrate, ketogenic diet to treat type 2 diabetes. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2005;2 :34[CrossRef][Medline]
  93. Mavropoulos JC, Yancy WS, Hepburn J, Westman EC. The effects of a low-carbohydrate, ketogenic diet on the polycystic ovary syndrome: a pilot study. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2005;2 :35[CrossRef][Medline]
  94. Dashti HM, Al-Zaid NS, Mathew TC, et al. Long term effects of ketogenic diet in obese subjects with high cholesterol level. Mol Cell Biochem. 2006;286 :1 –9[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
PEDIATRICS (ISSN 1098-4275). ©2007 by the American Academy of Pediatrics

Add to CiteULike CiteULike   Add to Connotea Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us Del.icio.us   Add to Digg Digg   Add to Facebook Facebook   Add to Reddit Reddit   Add to Technorati Technorati   Add to Twitter Twitter    What's this?


This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 J Child NeurolHome page
A. Evangeliou, M. Spilioti, V. Doulioglou, P. Kalaidopoulou, A. Ilias, A. Skarpalezou, I. Katsanika, S. Kalamitsou, K. Vasilaki, I. Chatziioanidis, et al.
Branched Chain Amino Acids as Adjunctive Therapy to Ketogenic Diet in Epilepsy: Pilot Study and Hypothesis
J Child Neurol, October 1, 2009; 24(10): 1268 - 1272.
[Abstract] [PDF]

Home page
 PediatricsHome page
M. A. McNally, P. L. Pyzik, J. E. Rubenstein, R. F. Hamdy, and E. H. Kossoff
Empiric Use of Potassium Citrate Reduces Kidney-Stone Incidence With the Ketogenic Diet
Pediatrics, August 1, 2009; 124(2): e300 - e304.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J Child NeurolHome page
J. Nizamuddin, Z. Turner, J. E. Rubenstein, P. L. Pyzik, and E. H. Kossoff
Management and Risk Factors for Dyslipidemia With the Ketogenic Diet
J Child Neurol, July 1, 2008; 23(7): 758 - 761.
[Abstract] [PDF]

Home page
 Arch Pediatr Adolesc MedHome page
N. Kuppermann, J. Park, K. Glatter, J. P. Marcin, and N. S. Glaser
Prolonged QT Interval Corrected for Heart Rate During Diabetic Ketoacidosis in Children
Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, June 1, 2008; 162(6): 544 - 549.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Neurosci.Home page
X.-Y. Lian, F. A. Khan, and J. L. Stringer
Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate Has Anticonvulsant Activity in Models of Acute Seizures in Adult Rats
J. Neurosci., October 31, 2007; 27(44): 12007 - 12011.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when eLetters are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow E-mail this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in Web of Science
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to My File Cabinet
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowRequest Permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via CrossRef
Right arrow Citing Articles via Web of Science (33)
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Freeman, J. M.
Right arrow Articles by Hartman, A. L.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Freeman, J. M.
Right arrow Articles by Hartman, A. L.
Related Collections
Right arrow Nutrition & Metabolism
Social Bookmarking
Add to CiteULike   Add to Connotea   Add to Del.icio.us   Add to Digg   Add to Facebook   Add to Reddit   Add to Technorati   Add to Twitter  
What's this?