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Food-Related Advertising on Preschool Television: Building Brand Recognition in Young Viewers

Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University, and Injury Prevention Center, Rainbow Babies and Children's Hospital, Cleveland, Ohio

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT Branding and Very Young... The Advertising Climate on... Purpose and Hypothesis METHODS RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

 
OBJECTIVES. This study used content analysis to explore how much and what type of advertising is present in television programming aimed at toddlers and preschool-aged children and what methods of persuasion are being used to sell products and to promote brands to the youngest viewers.

METHODS. Four randomly selected, 4-hour blocks (9 AM to 1 PM) were recorded in spring 2005 from each of 3 stations airing programming aimed specifically at toddlers and preschool-aged children (Public Broadcasting Service, Disney, and Nickelodeon). All content that aired in the spaces between programs was examined. Data recorded for food-related advertisements included the primary appeals used to promote products or brands, whether advertisements were aimed at children or adults, whether advertisements used primarily animation or live action, whether advertisements showed food, and whether licensed characters were used.

RESULTS. In 96 half-hour blocks of preschool programming, the 3 stations had a total of 130 food-related advertisements (1.354 food advertisements per half-hour). More than one half of all food advertisements (76 of 130 advertisements) were aimed specifically at children, and the majority of those were for fast food chains (50 advertisements) or sweetened cereals (18 advertisements). The primary advertising appeals used associated products with fun and happiness and/or with excitement and energy. Fast food advertisements in particular seemed to focus on building brand recognition and positive associations, through the use of licensed characters, logos, and slogans.

CONCLUSIONS. The majority of child-oriented food advertisements viewed seemed to take a branding approach, focusing on creating lifelong customers rather than generating immediate sales. Promotional spots on advertisement-supported (Nickelodeon) and sponsor-supported (Public Broadcasting Service and Disney) networks took similar approaches and used similar appeals, seeming to promote the equation that food equals fun and happiness.

Key Words: preschool-aged children • media • television • overweight children • obesity

Abbreviations: PBS—Public Broadcasting Service

According to estimates from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 10% of 2- to 5-year-old children and 15% of 6- to 19-year-old youths in the United States have weights above gender- and age-specific 95th percentile values.¹ The association between levels of television viewing and risk of overweight and obesity is well established.^2–7 Children's television viewing, including the 40000 advertisements to which they are exposed each year,^8–11 also is associated positively with poor eating habits and misperceptions about nutrition.^12–16 In studies of children as young as 3 years of age, exposure to television advertising was correlated positively with recall of, request for, and consumption of advertised food products, which are predominantly high in fat, sodium, and/or sugar.^{9,12–14,17–22}

With an explosion in recent years in media aimed directly at infants and toddlers, and the advertising that accompanies such media, the youngest members of our society are being exposed to more television and more advertisements than ever before. Preschool-aged children are uniquely susceptible to advertising, because children in this age group have trouble distinguishing programs from commercials and often have difficulty discriminating between reality and what they see on television, even when programming is animated.^8,9 Preschool-aged children are likely to view advertisements as objective statements of fact, that is, unbiased informational pieces designed to tell them about a toy or food product,^23,24 and lack the ability to comprehend an advertisement's intent to sell.^25–27

Although the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children <2 years of age not watch any television,⁸ a survey of 1065 parents of children <6 years of age by the Kaiser Family Foundation found that 58% of children <2 years of age watched television on an average day; the number increased to 70% for children 4 to 6 years of age.²⁸ The study also found that 30% of children 0 to 3 years of age and 43% of children 4 to 6 years of age had televisions in their rooms, a factor that increases children's likelihood of weight problems significantly.²⁹

	Branding and Very Young Children

TOP ABSTRACT Branding and Very Young... The Advertising Climate on... Purpose and Hypothesis METHODS RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

 
Branding is an advertising method designed to establish recognition and positive associations with a company name or product, with the goal of creating lifelong customers. Brand recognition begins as early as 2 years of age, particularly when cartoon (Tony the Tiger) or cartoonish (Ronald McDonald) licensed characters are used to sell products.^30–32 Marketers are eager to reach very young children but not necessarily to promote specific products; instead, the goal is often to build brand loyalties, on the basis of the theory that, the younger the age at which brand awareness is established, the stronger the brand loyalty will be as a child grows. James McNeal, an expert in children's consumer behavior, exhorts marketers to start early, "Brand marketing must begin with children. Even if a child does not buy the product and will not for many years... the marketing must begin in childhood."³³

	The Advertising Climate on the Top Networks for Preschool-Aged Children

TOP ABSTRACT Branding and Very Young... The Advertising Climate on... Purpose and Hypothesis METHODS RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

 
Nickelodeon's Nick Jr. block, which airs from 9 AM to 2 PM on weekdays, has a larger share of the preschool market than its closest rivals, Disney Channel (Playhouse Disney) and Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) (PBS Kids). The basic cable channel, which draws up to 1 million viewers 2 to 5 years of age to the Nick Jr. block each weekday,³⁴ is supported openly by advertisements. Both Disney and PBS promote themselves as commercial-free, but they provide underwriting credits to corporate sponsors. The rhetorical strategies used by PBS executives to recruit sponsors underscores the focus on building brand recognition in this age cohort, offering opportunities for advertisers to "reach into 99% of American homes" and "extend their corporate messaging to build loyalty among millions of PBS members and viewers."³⁵

	Purpose and Hypothesis

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Existing advertising content analyses generally have focused on programming aimed at school-aged children^13,22,36,37 and primarily are older studies, often focused on Saturday morning programming.^15,38–42 The world of children's television has changed a great deal in the past 2 decades. Whereas once Saturday morning was the main period for cartoons and child-oriented programming, now weekdays are more likely viewing times for children, who have access to a far wider range of programming aimed just at them. The principal child-oriented networks, namely, PBS, Nickelodeon, and Disney, all have weekday morning programming blocks aimed specifically at toddlers and preschool-aged children.

On the basis of the premise that few parents or pediatricians are aware of the advertising messages to which the youngest television viewers are being exposed on a daily basis, this study used content analysis to explore how much and what type of advertising is present in television programming aimed at toddlers and preschool-aged children and what methods of persuasion are being used to sell products to the smallest viewers, as a first step in understanding the nature and implications of this shift in media toward increasingly younger viewers. Advertisers are targeting the most vulnerable viewers consciously and carefully, often as part of a concerted effort to build brand recognition among toddlers and preschool-aged children. What messages are they sending children about food and its place in our lives?

	METHODS

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In spring 2005, four 4-hour blocks (9 AM to 1 PM) were recorded from each of 3 stations that aired programming aimed specifically at toddlers and preschool-aged children during that time period, including 1 broadcast network, namely, PBS (PBS Kids), and 2 basic cable channels, namely, Disney (Playhouse Disney) and Nickelodeon (Nick Jr). A random-number generator was used to assign taping dates for each network to any 4 weekdays during the month of May.

The primary coder viewed all 48 hours of programming and captured data on all material that aired in the interstitial spaces (intervals between programs) (see Fig 1 for an overview of the data fields). Pieces were classified as advertising when they showcased a product (such as Frosted Flakes) or a corporation (McDonald's), even when the network classified the piece as sponsorship, rather than an advertisement. Determination of whether advertisements were aimed primarily at children or adults was based on both visual cues (use of animation and licensed characters, music, tone, and ages of characters portrayed) and textual cues (whether voiceover announcers or characters addressed adults or children specifically within the advertisement).

View larger version (25K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 1 Variables captured in content analysis. PSAs indicates public service announcements; promos, promotional spots; ad, advertisement.

The primary coder then recoded all data sets, and 4 days of programming (ie, 32 half-hour segments) were chosen at random for viewing by the second coder, to ensure that all differences had been resolved (concordance for appeal type was acceptable, at 88%). Analysis of data proceeded with SPSS 12.0 software (SPSS, Chicago, IL), for generation of descriptive statistics and ² testing, with statistical significance defined as P < .05.

	RESULTS

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A total of 48 hours of preschool television were viewed, representing 32 half-hour blocks on each of the 3 stations studied (Disney, PBS, and Nickelodeon). Table 1 provides the distribution of product categories for promotional spots aimed at children.

Appeals Used in Child-Oriented Food Advertising
Table 3 illustrates that, in the 76 food-related advertisements aimed at children, the most widely used appeals were fun (82% of advertisements) and action (57%). Fun was the most common appeal (used in all PBS and Disney food-related advertisements aimed at children and in 68% of Nickelodeon advertisements [30 of 44 advertisements] aimed at children). This appeal associated fun and happiness with a product and contained no significant reference to the specifics of the product itself. The average child-oriented advertisement incorporating a fun appeal featured laughing, smiling, giggling, or playing children, often in the company of a licensed character. The next most common appeal was action, which was used in all PBS and Disney advertisements and in 25% of Nickelodeon advertisements (11 of 44 advertisements). Distinct from but complemented by the fun appeal, the action appeal associated excitement or energy with a product. The typical action appeal in a child-oriented advertisement featured children running, jumping, or playing sports or children and licensed characters engaged in high-energy activities (rock climbing, biking, or skateboarding); action appeals often included loud fast music and quick cuts between scenes.

Stylistic Elements of Child-Oriented Food Advertising
All child-oriented food advertisements on Disney and PBS used animation and incorporated licensed characters (the clown Ronald McDonald and the mouse Chuck E. Cheese). Of child-oriented food advertisements on Nickelodeon, 50% (22 of 44 advertisements) used animation and 55% (24 advertisements) incorporated licensed characters. Analyses with ² tests indicated that advertisements for fast food were more likely than advertisements for other food products to use animation (P = .004) and to incorporate licensed characters (P = .001) but were significantly less likely to show food (P < .001).

None of the child-oriented food advertisements on Disney or PBS (all of which were for fast food chains) showed food or referred to any food products offered by the sponsors. In keeping with the appeal types used, which focused on fun and/or action, the majority of fast food advertisements on all 3 networks were built around images of children and/or licensed characters playing and having fun, with food being seldom shown. Of 50 fast food advertisements aimed at children, the only advertisement in which food was presented as the inducement to visit a restaurant was a Wendy's advertisement for the Junior Frosty, which was shown 6 times on Nickelodeon and which focused solely on the product's taste and included neither actors nor licensed characters. In other categories of food advertising on Nickelodeon, a product was more likely to be shown during the course of a commercial but the same incidental tone was retained. Cereal advertisements, for example, usually closed with a picture of a bowl of cereal with juice, milk, and other foods and the statement that the cereal is "part of a balanced breakfast." Snack food advertisements often showed their products within the advertisement but did so within the context of focusing on the "coolness" or novelty of the food's shape, color, or flavor. Across all networks, food advertisements aimed at adults (85%) were significantly more likely than those aimed at children (46%) to show a food product (P < .001).

	DISCUSSION

TOP ABSTRACT Branding and Very Young... The Advertising Climate on... Purpose and Hypothesis METHODS RESULTS DISCUSSION REFERENCES

 
Primary Findings
In 96 half-hour blocks of preschool programming viewed, the 3 stations had a total of 130 food-related advertisements, that is, 1.354 food advertisements per half-hour of viewing. More than one half of all food advertisements were aimed specifically at children, and the majority of those were for fast food outlets or sweetened cereals. The overrepresentation of foods high in fat, sugar, and/or sodium is in keeping with findings from earlier studies.^22,37 Whereas child-oriented food advertisements on Disney and PBS were composed entirely of fast food advertisements, Nickelodeon had a wider array of advertised products for children, including cereals, fruit snacks, candies, and frozen deserts.

Earlier content analyses found that the mixture of child-oriented advertisements remained relatively stable from the late 1970s through the early 1990s, with the majority of advertisements promoting cereal (30%), candy/snacks (30%), toys (18%), and fast food (10%).^15,22,42 This study, however, found a shift in that ranking; 32% of child-oriented advertisements in this sample were for fast food, compared with 14% for toys, 11% for cereal, and 5% for candy/snacks.

The most widely used appeals for the child audience were fun (82% of child-oriented food advertisements) and action (57%); these persuasive themes are similar to those found in earlier studies.³⁶ The other commonly used appeal, which was seen only on the openly advertisement-supported Nickelodeon, was taste (25% of all child-oriented food advertisements). Fast food advertisements, in particular, relied on licensed characters as central elements of their child-focused advertising strategies. Less than one half of all child-oriented food advertisements (35 of 76 advertisements) showed food, and only 11 of 50 fast food advertisements aimed at children showed food products. Even when food was incorporated in an advertisement, however, the presentation was either perfunctory (a bowl of cereal pictured as "part of a healthy breakfast") or incidental (child actors pondering the shape, taste, or design of a snack food).

Parameters and Limitations
This study focused on preschool programming that aired in spring 2005 on PBS, Disney, and Nickelodeon. Cartoon Network, which, like Nickelodeon, is supported openly by advertisements, launched a 2-hour preschool block (Tickle U) in August 2005, which is not included in this review. The preschool-oriented network Noggin, which airs a mixture of Nick Jr shows and original programming, was not included in this study because it is not a basic cable offering.

This research project was designed to identify trends and key issues for additional evaluation in an area that has not been studied previously, rather than being intended as an exhaustive review. These findings indicate a need for a larger study to validate these results and to explore more thoroughly the extent and nature of food-related advertising in preschool television. This study is limited by its focus solely on programming in a single midyear month, which does not reflect seasonal variations in advertising content. However, unpublished research by the author that examined advertising content in May 2003 and November 2004 found that Nickelodeon was the only station on which advertisements shifted significantly toward toys before the winter holiday season; advertising on both Disney and PBS retained the focus on fast food chains.

Branding
Fast food advertisements, particularly the 44 advertisements for McDonald's and Chuck E. Cheese, seemed to focus on building brand recognition through the use of licensed characters, logos, and slogans; advertisements seemed to be designed to build social or emotional associations with products or brands. Generally, food was not associated with the brand in most fast food advertising, even on Nickelodeon. Taste, nutritional value, or even the presence of food was not presented as an inducement to visit a fast food outlet. Rather, advertisements seemed to focus on building familiarity and brand loyalties, with the occasional added inducements of free toys or the chance to play games. The messages sent by these advertisements were that people go to McDonald's for toys and fun, not fries, and people go to Chuck E. Cheese to play games and win things, not to eat pizza.

Although styles and approaches differed somewhat between the 2 sponsor-supported networks and the single advertisement-supported network, the overarching messages were the same. Despite scenes of jumping, running, and laughing children, for example, the Chuck E. Cheese advertisements that appeared on PBS were not about promoting active lifestyles; rather, they seemed to focus on creating warm feelings for parents about what a wholesome, child-oriented place Chuck E. Cheese is and helping children equate the restaurant and its licensed character with fun and happiness.

Implications for Professionals
Television programs and product-marketing efforts are being aimed at increasingly younger children. The number of advertisements on Disney and PBS would come as a surprise to many adults who do not have occasion to view preschool programming regularly; even researchers who have conducted similar content analyses have identified PBS as a commercial-free option for children.¹⁵ Whether they are called advertisements or sponsorships, food-related spots on all 3 networks seemed to share a common focus on building brand awareness and brand loyalties among the youngest and most vulnerable viewers.

Although the sponsorship advertisements that appear on PBS Kids and Playhouse Disney are generally gentler and more circumspect than the hard-sell advertisements aired on Nick Jr, parents and public health professionals cannot dismiss these types of advertisements as harmless. Despite the marketing rhetoric that advertisements that do not show food are not selling anything, these advertisements promote the equation that food equals fun and happiness. Advertisers are gaining increasingly early brand recognition among toddlers and preschool-aged children, in an era in which rates of childhood overweight and obesity are increasing and health threats associated previously only with adults, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus and high cholesterol levels, are appearing among children.

Marketing efforts aimed at children are fueled by much well-funded research into the cognitive and behavioral effects of advertising on very young subjects. Pediatricians, nurses, parents, public health professionals, and others interested in acting as advocates for children need some level of awareness about the effects of advertising on toddlers and preschool-aged children and should be knowledgeable about the level and scope of marketing aimed at the youngest cohort of television viewers.

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that pediatricians and other health care providers use media histories or similar tools in well-child visits to help parents recognize the extent of their children's television exposure.^8,43 Physicians should also prompt parents and caregivers to consider carefully the many advertising messages with which even the youngest children are bombarded each day. Health care providers may think that the toddler and preschool years are too early to begin discussions about media exposure, but surveys indicate that the majority of toddlers and preschool-aged children are already regular media consumers. This study of the advertising messages present in preschool programming highlights the early age at which marketers are now reaching children with messages that equate high-calorie, high-fat, and high-sugar foods with fun and happiness. Pediatricians and other health care providers who are knowledgeable about the current state of advertising in preschool television can better encourage parents to follow the recommendations of the American Academy of Pediatrics for families, that is, to limit television viewing time, to remove television sets from children's bedrooms, to monitor the shows children are watching, and to watch television with children.

	FOOTNOTES

 
Accepted May 23, 2006.

Address correspondence to Susan M. Connor, PhD, Injury Prevention Center, Rainbow Babies and Children's Hospital, 11100 Euclid Ave, HPV B55, Cleveland, OH 44106-6039. E-mail: susan.connor{at}cwru.edu

The author has indicated she has no financial relationships relevant to this article to disclose.

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