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* Department of Pediatrics, Albert Einstein Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Karolinska Institute, Neonatal Research Unit, Astrid Lindgren's Children's Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
Maryland Medical Research Institute, Baltimore, Maryland
|| Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Arkansas Children's Hospital, Little Rock, Arkansas
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
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Objective. We tested the hypothesis that preterm neonates randomized to the morphine infusion group would have improved ventilatory outcomes, measured as shorter durations of ventilator or oxygen therapy, fewer air leaks, and lower incidence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia.
Methods. All 898 subjects (gestational age [GA] of 
23 to 
32 weeks) who were enrolled in the Neurologic Outcomes and Preemptive Analgesia in Neonates (NEOPAIN) trial formed the study cohort (morphine: 449 patients; placebo: 449 patients). Subjects received the masked study drug until they were weaned from the ventilator or for 14 days, whichever occurred earlier. Outcome measures included air leaks, duration of ventilation or oxygen therapy, hospitalization, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and death.
Results. Subjects in the 2 groups had similar baseline characteristics (mean ± SD, morphine versus placebo: GA: 27.3 ± 2.3 vs 27.4 ± 2.3 weeks; birth weight: 1037 ± 340 vs 1054 ± 354 g). Infants in the morphine group required ventilator therapy significantly longer, compared with the placebo group (median [interquartile range]: 7 days [4–20 days] vs 6 days [3–19 days]). This difference in ventilation duration was significant for infants with GA of 27 to 29 weeks (6 days [4–12 days] vs 5 days [2–9 days]) and 30 to 32 weeks (4 days [3–6 days] vs 3 days [2–5 days]). Infants who received additional analgesia with intermittent morphine doses in both groups were sicker than those who were not given open-label morphine. After adjustment for birth weight, Clinical Risk Index for Babies scores, maternal chorioamnionitis, RDS requiring surfactant, and patent ductus arteriosus in a logistic regression model, the use of additional analgesia with morphine was associated independently with increased air leaks and longer durations of high-frequency ventilation, nasal continuous positive airway pressure, and oxygen therapy.
Conclusions. Morphine infusions do not improve short-term pulmonary outcomes among ventilated preterm neonates. Additional morphine doses were associated with worsening respiratory outcomes among preterm neonates with RDS.
Key Words: pain • bronchopulmonary dysplasia • lung • newborn infant • morphine
Abbreviations: AA, additional analgesia • BPD, bronchopulmonary dysplasia • BW, birth weight • CPAP, continuous positive airway pressure • CRIB, Clinical Risk Index for Babies • GA, gestational age • HFV, high-frequency ventilation • M3G, morphine-3-glucuronide • M6G, morphine-6-glucuronide • nCPAP, nasal continuous positive airway pressure • NEOPAIN, Neurologic Outcomes and Preemptive Analgesia in Neonates • NOPAIN, Neonatal Outcome and Prolonged Analgesia in Neonates • PDA, patent ductus arteriosus • RDS, respiratory distress syndrome
The relief of pain per se is certainly an appropriate clinical goal for premature neonates.1 There is, however, significant variation in the use of opioid analgesics in NICUs.2 The impact of opioid therapy, used early in the neonatal course, on short-term outcomes is not known.3 The studies4–7 that have evaluated the impact of morphine on neonatal ventilatory outcomes have varied in their findings. Dyke at al4 reported that morphine therapy was associated with improved ventilator synchrony and reduced heart rate, respiratory rate, and duration of oxygen therapy among ventilated preterm neonates. That study, however, had only 26 infants enrolled and the results of that small pilot study should be interpreted with caution.4 Our pilot study, the Neonatal Outcome and Prolonged Analgesia in Neonates (NOPAIN) trial, suggested improved neurologic outcomes for the group of patients who received morphine (vs midazolam or placebo) but no differences in the number of days required for mechanical ventilation, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), or oxygen therapy.5
Among 20 ventilated premature infants randomized to receive fentanyl or placebo infusions, those who received fentanyl required a longer duration of mechanical ventilation but showed no effects on bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), intraventricular hemorrhage, or sepsis.6 In another study of 27 infants (compared with 28 untreated control subjects), there were no significant differences in the short-term ventilatory parameters between the 2 groups.7 However, these studies4–7 had small numbers of subjects and inadequate power to detect or to reject any difference in these outcomes. Therefore, there is no reliable evidence regarding the effects of morphine on pulmonary outcomes among neonates.
The subjects enrolled in the Neurologic Outcomes and Preemptive Analgesia in Neonates (NEOPAIN) multicenter trial provided the opportunity to explore the effects of opioid therapy on pulmonary outcomes. We proposed, a priori, to test the hypothesis that preterm infants with respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) who received morphine infusions would have shorter durations of ventilation, CPAP, or oxygen therapy and decreased rates of pulmonary air leaks or BPD.
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METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
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Randomization was performed with an automated telephone response system and was stratified according to the participating NICU and gestational age (GA) (23–26 weeks, 27–29 weeks, or 30–32 weeks), to ensure equal numbers in the morphine and placebo groups. To eliminate clinical bias, all clinical personnel were blinded to the study drug code, and unblinding of the treatment code (n = 6) was limited by stringent criteria.
Therapeutic Management
Neonates randomized to the morphine group received a loading dose of morphine (100 µg/kg infused over 1 hour), followed by continuous infusions of 10, 20, or 30 µg/kg per hour for neonates in the GA strata of 23 to 26, 27 to 29, or 30 to 32 weeks, respectively. These doses were based on morphine pharmacokinetic data available at the time of protocol development.9–14 Increases in the study drug infusion were permitted only if the infant grew to a higher GA stratum, not to provide additional analgesia (AA). The study drug therapy was weaned and stopped (1) if extubation was expected within 24 hours, (2) if no spontaneous respiration occurred at PaCO2 values of 5.3 to 6.7 kPa, (3) if the patient's clinical condition was deteriorating rapidly, or (4) if study drug administration had continued for 14 days. No specific extubation guidelines were mentioned in the protocol; however, most used the following criteria for extubation: peak inspiratory pressure of 16 cm H2O, positive end expiratory pressure of 5 cm H2O, intermittent mandatory ventilation rate of 15 to 25 breaths per minute, and fraction of inspired oxygen of 0.35. Protocols for study drug weaning were designed to avoid opioid withdrawal, which was monitored with the Neonatal Withdrawal Inventory.15 In view of ethical concerns related to a blinded placebo group,16 intermittent boluses of open-label morphine (AA) were used for both groups, on the basis of specific criteria in the protocol. AA was given as intermittent boluses of morphine, as ordered by the treating physician at each center on the basis of the caregivers' evaluation of pain. Guidelines for use of muscle relaxants, naloxone, phenobarbital, and enteral nutrition were defined in the protocol. Neuromuscular blocking agents were to be used sparingly for neonates in the NEOPAIN trial. The clinical criteria for use of muscle relaxants included ventilator rates of 30 breaths per minute, high-frequency ventilation (HFV), peak inspiratory pressure of >25 cm H2O, oxygenation index of >0.2, and thoracic or abdominal surgery. Vecuronium was the drug of choice. Naloxone use was discouraged strongly, and the only indication for its use was the occurrence of life-threatening side effects related to morphine use. The use of phenobarbital was as an optional loading dose of 10 to 20 mg/kg or a maintenance dose of 2 to 5 mg/kg every 12 hours. For enteral nutrition, nasogastric tube feedings were started and advanced according to the specific criteria used for other neonates in the NICU. Use of midazolam and other sedative or analgesic drugs was not allowed.
Data Collection
Data collection included baseline clinical and demographic characteristics (Table 1), vital signs, and clinical outcomes related to ventilator management. The clinical factors defined below were selected a priori, on the basis of clinically reported associations with mechanical ventilation or BPD.
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50 cells per mm3), or low glucose concentrations (14 mg/dL) in the amniotic fluid. Chorioamnionitis was suspected if any 2 of the following clinical symptoms were present: maternal fever, leukocytosis, uterine tenderness, foul-smelling amniotic fluid, or fetal tachycardia.
Neonatal Variables
RDS was diagnosed on the basis of the clinical findings of respiratory distress and chest radiographs showing a diffuse reticulogranular pattern with air bronchograms. The Clinical Risk Index for Babies (CRIB), which includes birth weight (BW), GA, congenital malformations, maximal base excess, and minimal and maximal inspired oxygen concentrations in the first 12 hours, was calculated.17 Durations of mechanical ventilation and/or nasal CPAP (nCPAP) were defined as the completed days of these therapies. The number of doses of surfactant given for the treatment of RDS served as a surrogate measure of the severity of RDS. Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) was diagnosed on the basis of clinical signs of high-output congestive heart failure and was confirmed with echocardiographic evidence of ductal patency. Air leaks (pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum, pulmonary interstitial emphysema, pneumoperitoneum, pneumopericardium, or subcutaneous emphysema) were diagnosed on the basis of chest radiographic findings, ultrasonographic findings, or clinical signs. Early-onset sepsis was defined as a positive blood culture in the first 72 hours with clinical signs of sepsis or strong clinical evidence of sepsis with abnormal hematologic values but no positive culture. BPD was diagnosed on the basis of clinical and chest radiographic findings of BPD and the need for supplemental oxygen at a corrected GA of 36 weeks. Length of stay was defined as the number of completed days in the hospital.
Statistical Analyses
The hypotheses, study protocol, sample size, and methods for this prospective study were determined a priori before the initiation of statistical analyses. Assuming an incidence of BPD in the target population (GA of 23–32 weeks) of 30%, we estimated that 370 infants in each group would allow us to detect a change of at least 30% at 
= .05 and a power of 0.8. Treatment group demographic features and outcomes were compared with Student's t test, 
2 tests, or, for contingency tables with small cell numbers, Fisher's exact tests. For data that did not have a strictly normal distribution, the results are presented as median and interquartile range, and nonparametric tests (Wilcoxon test and Kruskal-Wallis test) were used for analyses (Tables 1–4), as appropriate.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
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The neonatal outcomes of all infants are presented in Table 2. The frequency of RDS and the overall severity of illness (CRIB scores) were similar in the 2 groups. Significantly more days were spent on mechanical ventilation in the morphine group, compared with the placebo group (P < .01), as reported earlier.8 No differences in the durations of nCPAP, oxygen therapy, or hospitalization or in the incidences of air leaks, early-onset sepsis, total sepsis, postnatal steroid use, BPD, or deaths occurred between the 2 randomized groups (Table 2).
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In the 27 to 29 weeks' GA category, the morphine group required longer ventilation than did the placebo group (6 days [4–12 days] vs 5 days [2–9 days]; P < .01), but no difference was noted in the duration of oxygen use (31 days [13–52 days] vs 34 days [14–49.5 days]; P = .95). The incidences of air leaks (7% vs 6%) and BPD (17% vs 18%) were not significantly different in the morphine and placebo arms. In the 30 to 32 weeks' GA category, the morphine group required longer ventilation than did the placebo group (4 days [3–6 days] vs 3 days [2–5 days]; P = .02), but no difference was noted in the duration of oxygen use (8 days [4–25 days] vs 7.5 days [3–15 days]; P = .25). The incidences of air leaks (5% vs 10%) and BPD (6% vs 7%) were not significantly different in the morphine and placebo arms. Differences in the duration of ventilation remained significant for the 27 to 29 weeks' GA (6 days [4–12 days] vs 5 days [2–9 days]; P < .01) and 30 to 32 weeks' GA (4 days [3–6 days] vs 3 days [2–5 days]; P = .03) strata, even after exclusion of deaths from both randomized groups.
To evaluate the effect of open-label AA in the morphine and placebo groups, data were analyzed in each group by comparing infants who did versus did not receive AA. Their demographic data are noted in Table 3. Infants who received AA, in both randomized groups, had significantly lower maternal age, less maternal chorioamnionitis, lower GA and BW, and lower Apgar scores at 1 and 5 minutes (Table 3).
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To examine whether morphine therapy contributed to the respiratory outcomes outlined above, we adjusted for BW, CRIB scores (which include GA in the composite scores), maternal chorioamnionitis, RDS requiring surfactant, and PDA in our logistic regression models, using placebo/no AA as the reference group. Preemptive morphine infusions did not alter these outcomes, but the use of morphine AA continued to be a strong independent predictor of worse respiratory outcomes even after adjustment for the aforementioned factors (Table 5).
Infants who received AA in the placebo group had a 3.4-fold increase in pulmonary air leaks (P < .01), compared with infants who received placebo and no AA. On average, these infants spent an additional 2.6 days on HFV (P < .01) and 3.2 days on nCPAP (P = .02) and required supplemental oxygen for an additional 7.2 days (P = .01), compared with infants who received placebo and no AA (Table 5).
Infants who received AA in the morphine group had even worse respiratory outcomes (Table 5), with a 4.3-fold increase in air leaks (P < .01), compared with infants who received placebo and no AA. On average, infants who received AA in the morphine group spent an additional 6.7 days on positive-pressure ventilation (P < .01), with similar contributions from conventional ventilation (P = .04) and HFV (P < .01). These infants also spent more time on nCPAP (additional 2.9 days; P = .04) and on supplemental oxygen (additional 8.1 days; P < .01).
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
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Results from the NEOPAIN multicenter trial suggest that use of preemptive morphine analgesia among premature infants with RDS does not decrease the incidences of pulmonary air leaks, BPD, or other respiratory outcomes. In a randomized, double-blind trial of morphine versus diamorphine among ventilated preterm neonates (n = 88), the 2 drug regimens were equally effective in terms of sedation, with no significant differences in mortality rates, ventilator days, or BPD rates.18 In the NOPAIN pilot study, no significant differences in ventilatory outcomes among the morphine (n = 24), midazolam (n = 22), and placebo (n = 21) groups were noted, but the durations of ventilation, nCPAP, and oxygen therapy were lowest in the morphine group.5
Ventilatory indices were unchanged in a short-term study comparing ventilated infants with RDS who received midazolam (n = 24) versus placebo (n = 22).19 Among mechanically ventilated neonates with RDS who did not receive surfactant, infants who received morphine (n = 11) had improved outcomes, compared with those who received chloral hydrate (n = 8), as evidenced by lower mean airway pressures, ventilator rates, and need for oxygen and improved survival rates in the morphine group.20
In our study, overall there was no difference in the incidence of BPD, despite significant differences in the duration of ventilation (Table 2). This highlights the complex and multifactorial nature of BPD.21 It is noteworthy that the incidence of BPD was higher among the infants who received more morphine (Table 4). Interestingly, after correction for variables known to affect BPD, AA with morphine continued to be associated significantly with longer duration of ventilation and oxygen therapy but not with the incidence of BPD (Table 5). Therefore, traditional environmental factors (for example, ventilator-induced lung injury, hyperoxia, sepsis, and PDA) may not be solely responsible and may require association with other (for example, genetic) influences to cause the disordered lung development that is the hallmark of BPD.21
On the basis of currently available physiologic/behavioral markers, opioid analgesia seems definitely to reduce pain/stress among ventilated preterm neonates.5–7,18 In terms of pulmonary outcomes, previous data suggested that opioid analgesia may be preferable over sedation,5,20 but the combination of opioid analgesia and muscle relaxation and/or sedative agents should be used with caution among ventilated neonates.22,23 Furthermore, a meta-analysis has raised concerns regarding the use of midazolam infusions among neonates.24
Most studies examining respiratory outcomes among ventilated neonates receiving analgesia enrolled a small number of infants5–7,19,20 and/or lacked a placebo arm.3,18,20 A recent randomized trial of morphine (n = 77) versus placebo (n = 73) among premature ventilated infants did not show any differences in the duration of ventilation or the incidence of BPD between the 2 groups.25 The large cohort of infants in the NEOPAIN trial (with a placebo arm) provided a more definitive opportunity to assess the effects of opioid analgesia on the respiratory outcomes of ventilated preterm infants.
Infants receiving morphine infusions were ventilated for significantly longer periods than were those receiving placebo, with differences primarily among 27- to 29-week neonates (receiving 20 µg/kg per hour morphine) and 30- to 32-week neonates (receiving 30 µg/kg per hour morphine). This most likely reflects the respiratory depression caused by increased doses of morphine, compared with that for 23- to 26-week neonates, who received 10 µg/kg per hour morphine. It is possible that the doses of morphine administered in the present study were excessive for the population studied. This could be a result of the dosing regimen or drug metabolism (see below). Weaning of the study drug was performed only for factors such as extreme suppression of the respiratory drive, and it is quite likely that the effects of the morphine infusion included not only analgesia but also excessive sedation. The results indicating a longer duration of mechanical ventilation in the morphine group would then be logical, because infants in the morphine group would be more sedated and therefore would have a lower respiratory drive.
The use of infant-triggered respiratory rate as a measure of respiratory drive is a novel approach to studying the problem of respiratory depression with morphine, although it is dependent on the infant's interaction with the ventilator and the type of triggering devices in the ventilator.26 Among trigger-ventilated preterm neonates (n = 14; BW: 1.37 kg; GA: 30 weeks) who received morphine (100 µg/kg bolus and 10 µg/kg/hour infusion), infants who had morphine-6-glucuronide (M6G) detectable at 12 hours (n = 6) showed a significantly greater reduction in triggered breath rate (–22 beats per minute), compared with those who did not (n = 3; –4 beats per minute) (P = .03).26 This raises questions about the role of metabolites of morphine in producing its clinical effects. Morphine is metabolized in the liver to the polar conjugates morphine-3-glucuronide (M3G) and M6G. The formation of the glucuronides is slow in preterm newborns because of immature liver function, but their half-lives are prolonged because of poor renal excretion. Despite their poor lipophilicity, there is clear evidence of brain penetration by the glucuronides,27,28 and this is likely to occur among preterm newborns with a poorly developed blood-brain barrier. There is evidence that M6G is a more potent analgesic agent and respiratory depressant than morphine itself,29,30 whereas M3G has antiopioid effects, although this evidence is not consistent.31,32 The formation of M3G in preterm newborns occurs earlier and in greater amounts than that of M6G.26 Therefore, in assessments of the respiratory depressant effects of morphine among preterm neonates, variables such as hepatic metabolism and renal excretion may be more important than the dosing regimen.
In a recent double-blind study comparing continuous infusion of 10 µg/kg per hour versus intermittent morphine boluses of 30 µg/kg every 3 hours among term neonates (and older children), it was reported that neonates had a narrower therapeutic window for postoperative morphine analgesia than did older age groups, with no difference in the safety or effectiveness of intermittent doses, compared with continuous infusions.33 The high plasma concentrations of morphine metabolites in the neonates were the result of low renal clearance, which was confirmed by the significant correlation between serum creatinine and M6G levels in this age group. The decreased clearance of morphine and M6G explained the increased analgesic effects among neonates.33 The authors concluded that morphine given intermittently does not provide any clinical advantages and that a continuous morphine infusion is probably safer for neonates.33 Another report from the same investigators described the effects of age and other clinical factors among 68 neonates (52 who were <7 days of age and 16 who were 7 days of age) after major surgery.34 Although pain scores were no different, the younger neonates had different morphine requirements (10 vs 10.8 µg/kg per hour), plasma morphine concentrations (23.0 vs 15.3 ng/mL), and M6G/morphine ratios (0.6 vs 1.5).34 Respiratory insufficiency occurred for 5 neonates who received intermittent morphine, but this difference between the groups was not significant. The authors concluded that neonates 7 days of age required significantly less morphine postoperatively than older neonates.34
These data suggest that patients of younger GA and sicker infants (requiring mechanical ventilation) would have lower requirements for morphine and that intermittent boluses of morphine might have more adverse effects. It is noteworthy that the infants of youngest GA (23–26 weeks) in our study were receiving 10 µg/kg per hour, the same dose as the term neonates in the aforementioned 2 reports.33,34
Another important result, apart from prolonged ventilation associated with a higher dose of morphine infusion, was the fact that morphine AA was an independent predictor of worse neonatal respiratory outcomes, even after controlling for the effects of BW and severity of illness (CRIB score). The CRIB score was superior to BW35 or the Score for Neonatal Acute Physiology for predicting survival to discharge.36
Interestingly, logistic regression analyses showed that the respiratory outcomes of infants who received preemptive morphine infusions alone (no AA) were not significantly different from those of the placebo/no AA group. In contrast, infants who received intermittent doses of morphine (AA) had worse respiratory outcomes, regardless of whether they received placebo or morphine infusions (Table 5). This effect was somewhat accentuated in the morphine group with AA, which suggests a cumulative dose effect of morphine on neonatal respiratory outcomes. This association of AA with worse pulmonary outcomes does not imply causation, because other unknown and/or unrecorded factors might be contributing to the results.
Because morphine AA was given at the discretion of the caregiver (based on their evaluation of "pain/discomfort" in the neonate), our data suggest that, for extremely sick, ventilated, premature newborns, providing "pain relief" through intermittent boluses of morphine might worsen their outcomes. We cannot discount completely the contribution of disease severity in this population to worse respiratory outcomes, but intermittent boluses of morphine seem to worsen neonatal ventilatory outcomes independently. We suggest caution in the use of intermittent morphine boluses for treating "pain/discomfort" in such populations.
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CONCLUSIONS |
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TOPABSTRACTMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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Centers and participants in the NEOPAIN trial were: United States: Arkansas Children's Hospital (Little Rock, AR), K.J.S. Anand, J. Seibert, M.B. Moore, H. Farrar, J. Valentine, T.J. Green, L. Letzig; Maryland Medical Research Institute (Baltimore, MD), B.A. Barton, S.S. Kronsberg, S. Fick; University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (Little Rock, AR), R.W. Hall, R. Arrington, R. Smith; University of Kentucky (Lexington, KY), N. Desai, V.L. Whitehead, J. L. Sampers, P.E. DeFranco, L.A. Shook, T.H. Pauly; Tufts University and New England Floating Hospital, B.A. Shephard, B. Mackinnon, J. Fiascone; Wake Medical Center (Raleigh, NC), T.E. Young, K. Carr, M.R. Johnson, K. McDaniel; Mercy Hospital and Medical Center (Chicago, IL), R. Vasa, J.S. Teji, D. Jahn; University of Pennsylvania and Pennsylvania Hospital (Philadelphia, PA), V.K. Bhutani, J. R. Gerdes, S. Abbasi, M.K.S. Grous, A. Scwhoebel; Medical Center of Delaware, D.J. Tuttle, K.H. Leef, J.L. Stefano; University of Illinois at Chicago (Chicago, IL), R. Bhat, T.N.K. Raju, G. Chari; Albert Einstein Medical Center (Philadelphia, PA), V. Bhandari, H. Hurt, J. Giannetta; Brigham and Women's Hospital (Boston, MA), E.C. Eichenwald, K. Housefield; Long Beach Memorial Hospital (Long Beach, CA), G. Padilla, K. Norris; France: Centre Hospitalier Poissy Saint Germain, Site Poissy, R. Carbajal, R. Lenclen, M. Jugie; Sweden: Karolinska Institute at Astrid Lindgren's Children's Hospital (Stockholm, Sweden), H. Lagercrantz, L.L. Bergqvist; Örebro University Hospital (Örebro, Sweden), J. Schollin, M. Eriksson; United Kingdom: Simpson Memorial Maternity Pavilion (Edinburgh, Scotland), N. McIntosh, G. Menon, E.M. Boyle; Data and Safety Monitoring Board: R. Troug (Harvard Medical School and Children's Hospital, Boston, MA), A. Aynsley-Green (Institute of Child Health and Hospital for Sick Children, London, United Kingdom), K.D. Craig (University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada), C.C. Johnston (McGill University School of Nursing and Montreal Children's Hospital, Montreal, Canada), M. Walden (Baylor University and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX); W.A. Silverman (Greenbrae, CA); E. Bancalari (University of Miami, FL); J. Rowe (National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, and Office on Women's Health, Washington DC).
We thank all of the physicians, nurses, pharmacists, ultrasonographers, occupational therapists, and physical therapists at the participating institutions and the parents who gave consent for this study.
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FOOTNOTES |
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Address correspondence to Vineet Bhandari, MD, DM, Division of Perinatal Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, Children's Hospital LCI 401B, PO Box 208064, New Haven, CT 06520–8064. E-mail: vineet.bhandari{at}yale.edu
No conflict of interest declared.
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TOPABSTRACTMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSREFERENCES |
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 K J S Anand and R W Hall Pharmacological therapy for analgesia and sedation in the newborn. Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed., November 1, 2006; 91(6): F448 - F453. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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