PEDIATRICS Vol. 115 No. 5 May 2005, pp. 1367-1377 (doi:10.1542/peds.2004-1176)
REVIEW ARTICLE |
Effect of Infant Feeding on the Risk of Obesity Across the Life Course: A Quantitative Review of Published Evidence
* Department of Community Health Sciences, St George's Hospital Medical School, London, United Kingdom
Department of Social Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
 |
ABSTRACT |
|---|
 TOP ABSTRACT METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
Objective. To examine the influence of initial infant feeding on obesity in later life.
Methods. A systematic review of published studies investigating the association between infant feeding and a measure of obesity was performed with Medline (1966 onward) and Embase (1980 onward) databases, supplemented with manual searches. Data extraction was conducted by 2 authors. Analyses were based on odds ratios of obesity among initially breastfed subjects, compared with formula-fed subjects, pooled with fixed-effects models.
Results. Sixty-one studies reported on the relationship of infant feeding to a measure of obesity in later life; of these, 28 (298900 subjects) provided odds ratio estimates. In these studies, breastfeeding was associated with a reduced risk of obesity, compared with formula feeding (odds ratio: 0.87; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.85–0.89). The inverse association between breastfeeding and obesity was particularly strong in 11 small studies of <500 subjects (odds ratio: 0.43; 95% CI: 0.33–0.55) but was still apparent in larger studies of 
500 subjects (odds ratio: 0.88; 95% CI: 0.85–0.90). In 6 studies that adjusted for all 3 major potential confounding factors (parental obesity, maternal smoking, and social class), the inverse association was reduced markedly (from an odds ratio of 0.86 to 0.93) but not abolished. A sensitivity analysis examining the potential impact of the results of 33 published studies (12505 subjects) that did not provide odds ratios (mostly reporting no relationship between breastfeeding and obesity) showed little effect on the results.
Conclusions. Initial breastfeeding protects against obesity in later life. However, a further review including large unpublished studies exploring the effect of confounding factors in more detail is needed.
Key Words: infant feeding • obesity • systematic review
Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval
Obesity represents a major public health problem in both developed and developing countries, which has increased rapidly in prevalence in the past 2 decades.1,2 After the suggestion that nutrition in early life might influence the risk of subsequent obesity,3 some reports suggested that initial breastfeeding might protect against obesity in later life,4–6 whereas others failed to confirm the association.7,8 Inconsistency in results could reflect variation in the statistical power of different studies or differences in the extent of adjustment for potential confounding factors, particularly maternal obesity, smoking, and socioeconomic background.5,8 Differences in the age of outcome assessment, calendar year of infant feeding, country, and method of assessment of infant feeding could also be important. Selective reporting or publication, particularly of small studies with extreme results, could also be an important factor. In an attempt to establish the extent to which infant feeding influences obesity, we reviewed the published literature on the relationship between infant feeding and obesity, to examine the overall consistency of reported associations, the extent of potential publication and reporting biases, and the potential contributions of confounding factors.
|
METHODS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
Systematic Review Process
The data retrieved for this review were based on a larger, inclusive, systematic search of all published articles, letters, abstracts, and review articles on infant feeding and cardiovascular disease, cardiovascular disease risk factors, and growth in the Medline and Embase bibliographic databases (Table 1). In addition, the reference lists of all studies that fulfilled our eligibility criteria and those of 3 relevant reviews were examined.9–11 The review was restricted to studies conducted with human subjects.
|
The electronic search (completed in September 2003) yielded 3600 unduplicated references. Three additional articles with relevant data that were published recently were also included.7,8,12 One reviewer (R.M.M.) completed the literature search. Abstract review suggested that 97 articles were potentially relevant, and 2 authors (C.G.O. and R.M.M.) extracted data from these studies, with total agreement. Thirty-six articles were excluded; 14 studies duplicated data in other reports and 22 did not compare obesity among formula-fed and breastfed subjects. A list of excluded studies is available from the authors. Therefore, 61 studies that compared a measure of obesity (quantitatively or narratively) among breastfed and formula-fed subjects were considered. Mean BMI differences between breastfed and formula-fed subjects were available for 8 studies,6,12–18 4 of which also provided odds of obesity.6,12,13,15 Studies that defined the odds of obesity or being overweight for breastfed and formula-fed subjects were reported more often and were included in a meta-analysis; 28 studies with 29 estimates (1 study reported results for 2 populations)19 met this inclusion criterion (Table 2). The definitions of obesity differed among studies (Table 2). However, most studies used a percentile cutoff based on BMI, describing subjects at the tail of the distribution. The 95th or 97th percentile was used most often, although some studies used cutoff values as low as the 85th percentile. A smaller number of studies used absolute BMI values15,20,21 or cutoff values based on standardized weight22,23 or weight for height.19,24,25 Studies involving infants used definitions based on percentiles of weight for length25–27 or percentiles of weight only.23 Initial feeding status was ascertained through maternal recall at the time of infant feeding or
3 years after birth. Comparisons were based on breastfed and formula-fed groups.
|
The World Health Organization defines exclusive breastfeeding as "breastfeeding or formula feeding while giving no other food or liquid, not even water."28 However, few studies report this definition, and exclusive breastfeeding is rarely maintained for the first 4 months and if possible 6 months of life, as advised by the World Health Organization. Therefore, the exclusiveness of infant feeding was based on the classification given in each article, as listed in Table 2. The feeding groups were defined as being mutually exclusive in 4 studies,5,29–31 the breastfed group included mixed feeders in 7 studies,6,15,19,23,27,32,33 and the formula-fed group included mixed feeders in 7 studies.6,13,26,33–36 In 2 studies in which infants were breastfed exclusively, the exclusiveness of formula feeding could not be gauged.4,37 The exclusiveness of initial feeding was unclear in 10 additional studies.8,12,20–22,24,25,38–40 No studies reported the use of nonstandard commercial formulas. Among studies that reported odds ratios (including 4 studies that reported both odds ratios and mean differences in BMI), 8 studies were based on populations from North America, 15 from Western Europe, 3 from Eastern Europe, 2 from Australasia, and 1 from China.
Statistical Analyses
The odds ratio of being defined as obese (or overweight) among initially breastfed subjects, compared with formula-fed subjects, was used as the principal outcome, with its variance. In many studies, the odds ratios were provided directly. For other studies, we calculated the odds ratios from reported prevalence rates of obesity in different feeding groups or from combinations of odds ratios given for different durations of breastfeeding with fixed-effects models, with formula-fed subjects as the reference group. In 2 studies, data for male and female subjects were combined.15,38 The main analysis was based on odds ratios that were unadjusted or adjusted for current age and gender and in some cases ethnic group.5,30 Results from fixed-effects models are reported throughout, because these reflect only the random error within each study, are more conservative because they are less affected by results of smaller studies that show stronger associations, and make no assumptions about the representativeness of the available studies. Because heterogeneity across studies was marked, possible sources of heterogeneity were examined. Funnel plots were used to assess whether small studies yielded larger effect estimates than larger studies, raising the possibility of publication bias.41,42 Tests described by Begg and Mazumdar43 and Egger et al42 for publication bias and funnel plot asymmetry, respectively, were also performed. Meta-regression was used to examine the influence of the following factors (defined a priori) with a test for trend: study size (<500, 500–2500, or >2500 subjects), age group at outcome measurement (infants 
1 year of age, young children >1 to 9 years of age, older children 10 to <16 years of age, or adults 16 years of age), year of birth, and response rates (analyzed as a continuous variable). The effects of adjustment for factors such as parental body size (mostly BMI), socioeconomic status, and maternal smoking were examined in 6 studies that provided data before and after adjustment for all 3 of these factors. The effects of study methods, particularly the method of ascertainment of infant feeding status (whether contemporary or recalled over a period of 3 years), study response rate, and definition of obesity (equivalent to <95th percentile, 95th to <97th percentile, or 97th percentile of BMI), were examined with meta-regression and sensitivity analyses.
Assessment of Reporting Biases
To establish the likelihood of reporting bias, the directions of reported associations were compared among studies that did or did not provide a quantitative estimate of the relative risk of obesity associated with breastfeeding. A sensitivity analysis examining the potential impact of studies not providing quantitative estimates was then conducted with meta-analyses providing an estimate of the pooled odds ratio, weighting each study estimate by the total number of subjects in that study. This was conducted first for studies providing published estimates and then for all studies. Unpublished odds ratios were derived from information on the direction of effect provided in the article. In all except 2 cases, this was reported to be a null effect and the odds ratio was assumed to be 1 (Table 3). The derivation of an odds ratio in the 2 studies that reported a direction of effect is outlined in a footnote to Table 3.44,45
|
|
RESULTS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
Among 61 observational studies that reported on the effects of infant feeding on a measure of adiposity in later life, 28 studies (298900 subjects) provided 29 unadjusted odds ratios relating the initial infant feeding method and obesity (Table 2). Four observations were for infants, 23 for children, and 2 for adults (Table 2). Twenty-eight of 29 estimates related breastfeeding to a lower risk of obesity. There was evidence of marked heterogeneity among studies (
282 = 111, P < .001). In a fixed-effects model including all studies, breastfed subjects were less likely to be defined as obese than were formula-fed subjects (odds ratio: 0.87; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.85–0.89) (Fig 1 and Table 2). This estimate was unaltered by exclusion of 4 studies with outcome measurement in infancy. In the fixed-effects model, the statistical weight given to the largest study amounted to 73%.12 Exclusion of this study strengthened the protective effect of breastfeeding on obesity to an odds ratio of 0.73 (95% CI: 0.70–0.77). Additional exclusion of the next 2 largest studies (accounting for 10% of the statistical weight) had little additional effect.29,33
|
Small studies reported the strongest relationships between breastfeeding and reduced risk of obesity (Figs 1 and 2), although the association was still present in larger studies. An odds ratio of 0.43 (95% CI: 0.33–0.55) was observed in 11 small studies (<500 participants), whereas odds ratios of 0.78 (95% CI: 0.69–0.89) and 0.88 (95% CI: 0.86–0.90) were observed in 7 studies of intermediate size (500–2500 participants) and in 10 large studies (>2500 participants), respectively. This trend can be seen in the funnel plot (Fig 2); not surprisingly, the results of the Egger test for funnel plot asymmetry were statistically significant (P < .001). The results of the Begg test were not statistically significant (P = .96). There was no clear evidence that the protective effect of breastfeeding altered with increasing age of outcome measurement. Odds ratios of 0.50 (95% CI: 0.26–0.94) for infants, 0.90 (95% CI: 0.87–0.92) for young children, 0.66 (95% CI: 0.60–0.72) for older children, and 0.80 (95% CI: 0.71–0.91) for adults were observed (test for trend, P = .85, adjusted for study size; P = .99 with the exclusion of infants). The smaller effect with narrow CIs observed for young children is attributable to the inclusion of the largest study with a small effect.12 Year of birth was unrelated to the odds ratio.
|
In 6 studies, it was possible to examine the effect of adjustment for the following potentially important confounders: socioeconomic status (based on parental education in 2 studies),12,33 parental BMI, and current maternal smoking33 or maternal smoking in early life.6,8,12,13,15 The pooled odds ratio in these studies was reduced from 0.86 (95% CI: 0.81–0.91) before adjustment to 0.93 (95% CI: 0.88–0.99) after combined adjustment. The effect of adjustment for size at birth (based on either birth weight or prevalence of low birth weight) was examined in 10 studies; this had no appreciable effect on the odds ratios.
The protective effect of breastfeeding over obesity was stronger and more homogeneous among 4 studies in which initial feeding groups were exclusive (odds ratio: 0.76; 95% CI: 0.70–0.83; test for heterogeneity between estimates, 32 = 5.4, P = .143), compared with all other studies.5,29–31 In addition, a longer duration of breastfeeding appeared to show a slightly greater protective effect on obesity. In 14 studies with information on breastfeeding duration, the protective effect of breastfeeding over formula feeding was greater among subjects breastfed for 2 months (odds ratio: 0.81; 95% CI: 0.77–0.84), compared with those breastfed for any duration (odds ratio: 0.89; 95% CI: 0.86–0.91) in the same studies. The combined odds ratio was little affected by particular obesity cutoff values used in different studies, by whether infant feeding status was recorded in infancy or retrospectively, or by response rate.
Thirty-three studies (12505 participants), although they examined relationships between breastfeeding and obesity, did not provide an estimate of relative risk (Table 3). However, they provided 35 reports of directions of association; of these, breastfeeding was unrelated to risk of obesity in 33, related to a reduced risk in 1, and related to an increased risk in 1. Therefore, studies that did not provide odds ratios were much less likely to report that breastfeeding was associated with a reduced risk of obesity, compared with studies that did provide odds ratios (1 of 35 studies and 18 of 29 studies, respectively; 2 = 26.9, P < .001). However, including these additional studies (which included fewer than one twentieth of the numbers of subjects in the studies that provided odds ratios) appeared to make little difference in the results. In a meta-analysis of the 29 odds ratios from 28 studies with published estimates, weighted according to the total number of subjects in each study, the summary odds ratio was 0.83, close to that reported for the main analysis above. The inclusion of 35 estimates from the 33 studies with no published odds ratio (Table 3) had a minimal effect on the summary estimate (summary odds ratio: 0.84). The difference in the summary estimates was similar when the largest published study, representing nearly three fourths of the combined statistical weight, was excluded from the analyses.12 Studies equivalent in statistical size to this largest study (N = 177304)12 and showing an overall protective effect of formula feeding over breastfeeding on obesity, with an odds ratio of 1.4 (far greater than any effect observed in the current meta-analysis), would be needed to nullify these combined results (ie, to produce an estimated odds ratio of 1).
|
DISCUSSION |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
In this overview of published studies relating infant feeding and obesity, studies reporting a quantitative estimate provided consistent evidence of a relationship between breastfeeding and reduced risk of obesity. Although the association was particularly strong among the smallest studies (consistent with the possibility of publication bias), it was also observed among larger studies. The association appeared stronger among prolonged breastfeeders and was unaltered by age at outcome measurement.
An important potential limitation of the evidence presented here is that it is based on observational studies; experimental studies are generally impracticable in this context, except in highly specific circumstances.46 Confounding is therefore an important possibility, and maternal factors are of particular potential importance. Low maternal social class and maternal obesity are related to a tendency to formula feed and to greater risk of obesity among offspring.5,8 Birth size may also be an important confounder, especially because lower mean birth weight may be associated with formula feeding and with an increased risk of later central obesity.5,47 The effect of confounding by maternal factors and birth weight may exaggerate an association between breastfeeding and obesity. In a subset of studies that examined the effect of adjustment for these factors, the association between breastfeeding and reduced risk of obesity was markedly attenuated.6,8,12,13,15,33
The association between breastfeeding and obesity could reflect selective reporting and/or publication. Our results indicated selective reporting of odds ratios by studies that showed a relationship between breastfeeding and reduced risk of obesity. However, because the studies that did not present odds ratios were on average much smaller than those that presented data, their inclusion had a minimal impact on effect estimates. The influence of publication bias is more difficult to assess. The results suggested that there was some selective publication of small studies showing strong associations between breastfeeding and obesity. However, the association remained, although it was weaker, among the larger published studies. It remains possible that, among large unpublished data sources, there is little or no association. However, studies equivalent in statistical size to the largest study (N = 177034)12 would need to show a highly improbable protective effect of formula feeding over breastfeeding to nullify the pooled results presented in this review.
Overall, our results suggest that breastfeeding is protective against obesity, although the precise magnitude of the association remains unclear. Increasing uptake of breastfeeding could form an important part of population strategies to prevent obesity. Several biological mechanisms may explain the association. Breastfeeding affects intakes of calories and protein,48 insulin secretion,49 and modulation of fat deposition and adipocyte development.4 If the effects of breastfeeding are sustained through either habituation or more-complex programming mechanisms, then the association could persist into adult life, as our results suggest. The consistency of the association with increasing age (as observed in the analyses) suggests that the protective effects of early breastfeeding are independent of dietary and physical activity patterns that emerge in later life.
In investigating the presence of a dose-response relationship, it was possible to show, from published data, only that prolonged breastfeeding was associated with an additional reduction in obesity, compared with any breastfeeding in the same studies. Additional data are needed to examine systematically the effects of duration of breastfeeding on obesity in adulthood. Additional studies are also needed to examine the effects of confounding and publication biases in more detail. Additional evidence regarding the effects of confounding factors on the relationship between breastfeeding and obesity, from both published and unpublished studies, is needed. Studies involving populations for which breastfeeding is socially patterned in a way that is different from that for European or North American populations (the predominant source of studies in the present meta-analysis) would be particularly valuable. Follow-up data for participants in randomized, controlled trials of breastfeeding promotion would provide particularly reliable evidence of the association.50 To address the influence of publication biases, additional data on the relationship between breastfeeding and obesity from large unpublished studies are needed, especially for adults. In addition, examination of the relationship of breastfeeding to markers of average adiposity in the comparison groups (for example, mean BMI) would supplement usefully the information on the prevalence of obesity provided in this study. While more data on these issues and on the relationship between duration of breastfeeding and obesity are being obtained, the case for breastfeeding is already strong and well established, based on a combination of other short- and long-term benefits, including improved neural and psychosocial development,51,52 less allergic disease,53 and potentially lower blood cholesterol levels in later life.54
|
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
|---|
C.G.O. was supported by the British Heart Foundation (grant PG/04/072). R.M.M. was supported by the Wellcome Trust.
|
FOOTNOTES |
|---|
Accepted Sep 14, 2004.
Address correspondence to Christopher G. Owen, PhD, Department of Community Health Sciences, St George's Hospital Medical School, Cranmer Terrace, London SW17 0RE, United Kingdom. E-mail: c.owen{at}sghms.ac.uk
All authors contributed to formulation of the hypothesis. Dr Martin conducted the literature search, Drs Owen and Martin extracted the data, and Dr Owen conducted statistical analyses, drafted the article, to which all authors contributed, and is guarantor. The guarantor accepts full responsibility for the conduct of the study, had access to the data, and controlled the decision to publish.
No conflict of interest declared.
|
REFERENCES |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
- World Health Organization. Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic: report of a WHO consultation. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser. 2000;894 :i–253
- de Onis M, Blossner M. Prevalence and trends of overweight among preschool children in developing countries.
Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72
:1032
–1039
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Lucas A. Programming by early nutrition in man. In: Bock GR, Whelan J, eds. The Childhood Environment and Adult Disease. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons; 1991:38 –55
- Von Kries R, Koletzko B, Sauerwald T, et al. Breast feeding and obesity: cross sectional study.
BMJ. 1999;319
:147
–150
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Hediger ML, Overpeck MD, Kuczmarski RJ, Ruan WJ. Association between infant breastfeeding and overweight in young children.
JAMA. 2001;285
:2453
–2460
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Gillman MW, Rifas-Shiman SL, Camargo CA Jr, et al. Risk of overweight among adolescents who were breastfed as infants.
JAMA. 2001;285
:2461
–2467
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Victora CG, Barros F, Lima RC, Horta BL, Wells J. Anthropometry and body composition of 18 year old men according to duration of breast feeding: birth cohort study from Brazil.
BMJ. 2003;327
:901
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Li L, Parsons TJ, Power C. Breast feeding and obesity in childhood: cross sectional study.
BMJ. 2003;327
:904
–905
[Free Full Text] - Butte NF. The role of breastfeeding in obesity. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001;48 :189 –198[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Dewey KG. Growth characteristics of breast-fed compared to formula-fed infants. Biol Neonate. 1998;74 :94 –105[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Parsons TJ, Power C, Logan S, Summerbell CD. Childhood predictors of adult obesity: a systematic review. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999;23 (suppl 8):S1–S107
- Grummer-Strawn LM, Mei Z. Does breastfeeding protect against pediatric overweight? Analysis of longitudinal data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Pediatric Nutrition Surveillance System. Pediatrics. 2004;113 (2). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/113/2/e81
- Bergmann KE, Bergmann RL, Von Kries R, et al. Early determinants of childhood overweight and adiposity in a birth cohort study: role of breast-feeding. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2003;27 :162 –172[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Fomon SJ, Rogers RR, Ziegler EE, Nelson SE, Thomas LN. Indices of fatness and serum cholesterol at age eight years in relation to feeding and growth during early infancy. Pediatr Res. 1984;18 :1233 –1238[Web of Science][Medline]
- Parsons TJ, Power C, Manor O. Infant feeding and obesity through the lifecourse.
Arch Dis Child. 2003;88
:793
–794
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Leeson CP, Kattenhorn M, Deanfield JE, Lucas A. Duration of breast feeding and arterial distensibility in early adult life: population based study.
BMJ. 2001;322
:643
–647
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Ravelli AC, van der Meulen JH, Osmond C, Barker DJ, Bleker OP. Infant feeding and adult glucose tolerance, lipid profile, blood pressure, and obesity.
Arch Dis Child. 2000;82
:248
–252
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Fall CH, Barker DJ, Osmond C, Winter PD, Clark PM, Hales CN. Relation of infant feeding to adult serum cholesterol concentration and death from ischaemic heart disease. BMJ. 1992;304 :801 –805
- Kramer MS. Do breast-feeding and delayed introduction of solid foods protect against subsequent obesity? J Pediatr. 1981;98 :883 –887[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Frye C, Heinrich J. Trends and predictors of overweight and obesity in East German children. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2003;27 :963 –969[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Poulton R, Williams S. Breastfeeding and risk of overweight. JAMA. 2001;286 :1449 –1450
- Richter J. Influence of duration of breast-feeding on body-weight-development [in German]. Arztl Jugendkd. 1981;72 :166 –169[Medline]
- Taitz LS. Infantile overnutrition among artificially fed infants in the Sheffield region. Br Med J. 1971;1 :315 –316
- Eid EE. Follow-up study of physical growth of children who had excessive weight gain in first six months of life. Br Med J. 1970;2 :74 –76
- Thorogood M, Clark R, Harker P, Mann JI. Infant feeding and overweight in two Oxfordshire towns. J R Coll Gen Pract. 1979;29 :427 –430[Medline]
- Dewey KG, Heinig MJ, Nommsen LA, Peerson JM, Lonnerdal B. Breast-fed infants are leaner than formula-fed infants at 1 y of age: the DARLING study.
Am J Clin Nutr. 1993;57
:140
–145
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Yeung DL, Pennell MD, Leung M, Hall J. Infant fatness and feeding practices: a longitudinal assessment. J Am Diet Assoc. 1981;79 :531 –535[Web of Science][Medline]
- World Health Organization, Division of Diarrhoeal and Acute Respiratory Disease Control. Indicators for Assessing Breast-feeding Practices: Report of an Informal Meeting. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1991
- Armstrong J, Reilly JJ. Breastfeeding and lowering the risk of childhood obesity. Lancet. 2002;359 :2003 –2004[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Liese AD, Hirsch T, von Mutius E, Keil U, Leupold W, Weiland SK. Inverse association of overweight and breast feeding in 9 to 10-y-old children in Germany. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001;25 :1644 –1650[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Neyzi G, Binyildiz P, Gunoz H. Influence of feeding pattern in early infancy on ponderal index and relative weight. In: Borms J, ed. Human Growth and Development. New York, NY: Plenum; 1984:603 –611
- Scaglioni S, Agostoni C, Notaris RD, et al. Early macronutrient intake and overweight at five years of age. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2000;24 :777 –781[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Toschke AM, Vignerova J, Lhotska L, Osancova K, Koletzko B, Von Kries R. Overweight and obesity in 6- to 14-year-old Czech children in 1991: protective effect of breast-feeding. J Pediatr. 2002;141 :764 –769[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Elliott KG, Kjolhede CL, Gournis E, Rasmussen KM. Duration of breastfeeding associated with obesity during adolescence. Obes Res. 1997;5 :538 –541[Web of Science][Medline]
- Strbak V, Skultetyova M, Hromadova M, Randuskova A, Macho L. Late effects of breast-feeding and early weaning: seven-year prospective study in children. Endocr Regul. 1991;25 :53 –57[Medline]
- Tulldahl J, Pettersson K, Andersson SW, Hulthen L. Mode of infant feeding and achieved growth in adolescence: early feeding patterns in relation to growth and body composition in adolescence. Obes Res. 1999;7 :431 –437[Web of Science][Medline]
- Wadsworth M, Marshall S, Hardy R, Paul A. Breast feeding and obesity: relation may be accounted for by social factors.
BMJ. 1999;319
:1576
[Free Full Text] - Maffeis C, Micciolo R, Must A, Zaffanello M, Pinelli L. Parental and perinatal factors associated with childhood obesity in north-east Italy. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1994;18 :301 –305[Web of Science][Medline]
- Sung RY, Tong PC, Yu CW, et al. High prevalence of insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome in overweight/obese preadolescent Hong Kong Chinese children aged 9–12 years.
Diabetes Care. 2003;26
:250
–251
[Free Full Text] - O'Callaghan MJ, Williams GM, Andersen MJ, Bor W, Najman JM. Prediction of obesity in children at 5 years: a cohort study. J Paediatr Child Health. 1997;33 :311 –316[Web of Science][Medline]
- Light RJ, Pillemar DB. Summing Up: The Science of Reviewing Research. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1984
- Egger M, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, Minder C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test.
BMJ. 1997;315
:629
–634
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Begg CB, Mazumdar M. Operating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias. Biometrics. 1994;50 :1088 –1101[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Hitchcock NE, Coy JF. The growth of healthy Australian infants in relation to infant feeding and social group. Med J Aust. 1989;150 :306 –311[Web of Science][Medline]
- Marmot MG, Page CM, Atkins E, Douglas JW. Effect of breast-feeding on plasma cholesterol and weight in young adults.
J Epidemiol Commun Health. 1980;34
:164
–167
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Lucas A, Morley R. Does early nutrition in infants born before term programme later blood pressure?
BMJ. 1994;309
:304
–308
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Barker DJ, Gluckman PD, Godfrey KM, Harding JE, Owens JA, Robinson JS. Fetal nutrition and cardiovascular disease in adult life. Lancet. 1993;341 :938 –941[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Heinig MJ, Nommsen LA, Peerson JM, Lonnerdal B, Dewey KG. Energy and protein intakes of breast-fed and formula-fed infants during the first year of life and their association with growth velocity: the DARLING Study.
Am J Clin Nutr. 1993;58
:152
–161
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Lucas A, Sarson DL, Blackburn AM, Adrian TE, Aynsley-Green A, Bloom SR. Breast vs bottle: endocrine responses are different with formula feeding. Lancet. 1980;1 :1267 –1269[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Kramer MS, Guo T, Platt RW, et al. Breastfeeding and infant growth: biology or bias?
Pediatrics. 2002;110
:343
–347
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Makrides M, Neumann M, Simmer K, Pater J, Gibson R. Are long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids essential nutrients in infancy? Lancet. 1995;345 :1463 –1468[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Fergusson DM, Woodward LJ. Breast feeding and later psychosocial adjustment. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 1999;13 :144 –157[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Lucas A, Brooke OG, Morley R, Cole TJ, Bamford MF. Early diet of preterm infants and development of allergic or atopic disease: randomised prospective study. BMJ. 1990;300 :837 –840
- Owen CG, Whincup PH, Odoki K, Gilg JA, Cook DG. Infant feeding and blood cholesterol: a study in adolescents and a systematic review.
Pediatrics. 2002;110
:597
–608
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Agostoni C, Grandi F, Gianni ML, et al. Growth patterns of breast fed and formula fed infants in the first 12 months of life: an Italian study.
Arch Dis Child. 1999;81
:395
–399
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Baranowski T, Bryan GT, Rassin DK, Harrison JA, Henske JC. Ethnicity, infant-feeding practices, and childhood adiposity. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1990;11 :234 –239[Web of Science][Medline]
- Baxter-Jones AD, Cardy AH, Helms PJ, Phillips DO, Smith WC. Influence of socioeconomic conditions on growth in infancy: the 1921 Aberdeen birth cohort.
Arch Dis Child. 1999;81
:5
–9
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Birkbeck JA, Buckfield PM, Silva PA. Lack of long-term effect of the method of infant feeding on growth. Hum Nutr Clin Nutr. 1985;39 :39 –44[Medline]
- Boulton J. Nutrition in childhood and its relationships to early somatic growth, body fat, blood pressure, and physical fitness. Acta Paediatr Scand Suppl. 1981;284 :1 –85[Medline]
- Butte NF, Wong WW, Hopkinson JM, Smith EO, Ellis KJ. Infant feeding mode affects early growth and body composition.
Pediatrics. 2000;106
:1355
–1366
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Chan GM, Roberts CC, Folland D, Jackson R. Growth and bone mineralization of normal breast-fed infants and the effects of lactation on maternal bone mineral status.
Am J Clin Nutr. 1982;36
:438
–443
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Charney E, Goodman HC, McBride M, Lyon B, Pratt R. Childhood antecedents of adult obesity: do chubby infants become obese adults? N Engl J Med. 1976;295 :6 –9[Abstract]
- de Bruin NC, Degenhart HJ, Gal S, Westerterp KR, Stijnen T, Visser HK. Energy utilization and growth in breast-fed and formula-fed infants measured prospectively during the first year of life. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998;67 :885 –896[Abstract]
- Dine MS, Gartside PS, Glueck CJ, Rheines L, Greene G, Khoury P. Where do the heaviest children come from? A prospective study of white children from birth to 5 years of age.
Pediatrics. 1979;63
:1
–7
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Dubois S, Hill DE, Beaton GH. An examination of factors believed to be associated with infantile obesity.
Am J Clin Nutr. 1979;32
:1997
–2004
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Fawzi WW, Forman MR, Levy A, Graubard BI, Naggan L, Berendes HW. Maternal anthropometry and infant feeding practices in Israel in relation to growth in infancy: the North African Infant Feeding Study.
Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;65
:1731
–1737
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Harrison GG, Graver EJ, Vargas M, Churella HR, Paule CL. Growth and adiposity of term infants fed whey-predominant or casein-predominant formulas or human milk. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1987;6 :739 –747[Web of Science][Medline]
- Jooste PL, Rossouw LJ, Steenkamp HJ, Rossouw JE, Swanepoel AS, Charlton DO. Effect of breast feeding on the plasma cholesterol and growth of infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1991;13 :139 –142[Web of Science][Medline]
- Michaelsen KF. Nutrition and growth during infancy: the Copenhagen Cohort Study. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 1997;420 :1 –36[Medline]
- Morgan JB, Mumford PM. A follow-up study of nutrition and anthropometry in pre-school children. Proc Nutr Soc. 1980;39 :5A[Medline]
- Oakley JR. Differences in subcutaneous fat in breast- and formula-fed infants.
Arch Dis Child. 1977;52
:79
–80
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Ong KK, Preece MA, Emmett PM, Ahmed ML, Dunger DB. Size at birth and early childhood growth in relation to maternal smoking, parity and infant breast-feeding: longitudinal birth cohort study and analysis. Pediatr Res. 2002;52 :863 –867[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Patterson RE, Typpo JT, Typpo MH, Krause GF. Factors related to obesity in preschool children. J Am Diet Assoc. 1986;86 :1376 –1381[Web of Science][Medline]
- Persson LA. Infant feeding and growth: a longitudinal study in three Swedish communities. Ann Hum Biol. 1985;12 :41 –52[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Saarinen UM, Siimes MA. Role of prolonged breast feeding in infant growth. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1979;68 :245 –250[Web of Science][Medline]
- Vobecky JS, Vobecky J, Shapcott D, Demers PP. Nutrient intake patterns and nutritional status with regard to relative weight in early infancy.
Am J Clin Nutr. 1983;38
:730
–738
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Wilkinson PW, Parkin JM, Pearlson J, Philips PR, Sykes P. Obesity in childhood: a community study in Newcastle upon Tyne. Lancet. 1977;1 :350 –352[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
- Wilson AC, Forsyth JS, Greene SA, Irvine L, Hau C, Howie PW. Relation of infant diet to childhood health: seven year follow up of cohort of children in Dundee infant feeding study.
BMJ. 1998;316
:21
–25
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Wolman PG. Feeding practices in infancy and prevalence of obesity in preschool children. J Am Diet Assoc. 1984;84 :436 –438[Web of Science][Medline]
- Zive MM, McKay H, Frank-Spohrer GC, Broyles SL, Nelson JA, Nader PR. Infant-feeding practices and adiposity in 4-y-old Anglo- and Mexican-Americans.
Am J Clin Nutr. 1992;55
:1104
–1108
[Abstract/Free Full Text]
PEDIATRICS (ISSN 1098-4275). ©2005 by the American Academy of Pediatrics
CiteULike 
Connotea 
Del.icio.us 
Digg 
Facebook 
Reddit 
Technorati 
Twitter What's this?
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  C. Corvalan, R. Uauy, A. D Stein, J. Kain, and R. Martorell Effect of growth on cardiometabolic status at 4 y of age Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, September 1, 2009; 90(3): 547 - 555. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. K. Kwok, C M. Schooling, T. H. Lam, and G. M Leung Does breastfeeding protect against childhood overweight? Hong Kong's 'Children of 1997' birth cohort Int. J. Epidemiol., August 20, 2009; (2009) dyp274v1. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. M. Robinson, L. D. Marriott, S. R. Crozier, N. C. Harvey, C. R. Gale, H. M. Inskip, J. Baird, C. M. Law, K. M. Godfrey, C. Cooper, et al. Variations in Infant Feeding Practice Are Associated with Body Composition in Childhood: A Prospective Cohort Study J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., August 1, 2009; 94(8): 2799 - 2805. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. E. Benjamin, S. L. Rifas-Shiman, E. M. Taveras, J. Haines, J. Finkelstein, K. Kleinman, and M. W. Gillman Early Child Care and Adiposity at Ages 1 and 3 Years Pediatrics, August 1, 2009; 124(2): 555 - 562. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 L J Griffiths, L Smeeth, S S. Hawkins, T J Cole, and C Dezateux Effects of infant feeding practice on weight gain from birth to 3 years Arch. Dis. Child., August 1, 2009; 94(8): 577 - 582. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. E. Benjamin, E. M. Taveras, A. L. Cradock, E. M. Walker, M. M. Slining, and M. W. Gillman State and Regional Variation in Regulations Related to Feeding Infants in Child Care Pediatrics, July 1, 2009; 124(1): e104 - e111. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. van Rossem, A. Oenema, E. A. P. Steegers, H. A. Moll, V. W. V. Jaddoe, A. Hofman, J. P. Mackenbach, and H. Raat Are Starting and Continuing Breastfeeding Related to Educational Background? The Generation R Study Pediatrics, June 1, 2009; 123(6): e1017 - e1027. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. J Field Summary of the workshop Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, May 1, 2009; 89(5): 1533S - 1539S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. Koletzko, R. von Kries, R. C. Monasterolo, J. E. Subias, S. Scaglioni, M. Giovannini, J. Beyer, H. Demmelmair, B. Anton, D. Gruszfeld, et al. Can infant feeding choices modulate later obesity risk? Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, May 1, 2009; 89(5): 1502S - 1508S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. Hummel, M. Pfluger, S. Kreichauf, M. Hummel, and A.-G. Ziegler Predictors of Overweight During Childhood in Offspring of Parents With Type 1 Diabetes Diabetes Care, May 1, 2009; 32(5): 921 - 925. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. R. Daniels, M. S. Jacobson, B. W. McCrindle, R. H. Eckel, and B. M. Sanner American Heart Association Childhood Obesity Research Summit Report Circulation, April 21, 2009; 119(15): e489 - e517. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. Ruckinger and R. von Kries Breastfeeding and reduced risk of childhood obesity: will randomized trials on breastfeeding promotion give the definite answer? Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, February 1, 2009; 89(2): 653 - 655. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 N. F. Butte Impact of Infant Feeding Practices on Childhood Obesity J. Nutr., February 1, 2009; 139(2): 412S - 416S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. F. O'Tierney, D. J. P. Barker, C. Osmond, E. Kajantie, and J. G. Eriksson Duration of Breast-feeding and Adiposity in Adult Life J. Nutr., February 1, 2009; 139(2): 422S - 425S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. S. Adair Methods Appropriate for Studying the Relationship of Breast-feeding to Obesity J. Nutr., February 1, 2009; 139(2): 408S - 411S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. P. August, S. Caprio, I. Fennoy, M. Freemark, F. R. Kaufman, R. H. Lustig, J. H. Silverstein, P. W. Speiser, D. M. Styne, and V. M. Montori Prevention and Treatment of Pediatric Obesity: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline Based on Expert Opinion J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., December 1, 2008; 93(12): 4576 - 4599. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. Li, S. B. Fein, and L. M. Grummer-Strawn Association of Breastfeeding Intensity and Bottle-Emptying Behaviors at Early Infancy With Infants' Risk for Excess Weight at Late Infancy Pediatrics, October 1, 2008; 122(Supplement_2): S77 - S84. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. G Owen, P. H Whincup, S. J Kaye, R. M Martin, G. Davey Smith, D. G Cook, E. Bergstrom, S. Black, M. E. Wadsworth, C. H Fall, et al. Does initial breastfeeding lead to lower blood cholesterol in adult life? A quantitative review of the evidence Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, August 1, 2008; 88(2): 305 - 314. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 R. Carvalho, E. Johnson, M. Kozlosky, and A. O. Scheimann Clinical Profile of the Overweight Child in the New Millennium Clinical Pediatrics, June 1, 2008; 47(5): 476 - 482. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. Mok, C. Multon, L. Piguel, E. Barroso, V. Goua, P. Christin, M.-J. Perez, and R. Hankard Decreased Full Breastfeeding, Altered Practices, Perceptions, and Infant Weight Change of Prepregnant Obese Women: A Need for Extra Support Pediatrics, May 1, 2008; 121(5): e1319 - e1324. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Kalliomaki, M. Carmen Collado, S. Salminen, and E. Isolauri Early differences in fecal microbiota composition in children may predict overweight Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, March 1, 2008; 87(3): 534 - 538. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. J. Mayer-Davis, D. Dabelea, A. P. Lamichhane, R. B. D'Agostino Jr., A. D. Liese, J. Thomas, R. E. McKeown, and R. F. Hamman Breast-Feeding and Type 2 Diabetes in the Youth of Three Ethnic Groups: The SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Case-Control Study Diabetes Care, March 1, 2008; 31(3): 470 - 475. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. G. Woo, L. M. Dolan, A. L. Morrow, S. R. Geraghty, and E. Goodman Breastfeeding Helps Explain Racial and Socioeconomic Status Disparities in Adolescent Adiposity Pediatrics, March 1, 2008; 121(3): e458 - e465. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 L. M. Segal and E. A. Gadola Generation O: Addressing Childhood Overweight before It's Too Late The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, January 1, 2008; 615(1): 195 - 213. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. Karaolis-Danckert, A. L. Gunther, A. Kroke, C. Hornberg, and A. E Buyken How early dietary factors modify the effect of rapid weight gain in infancy on subsequent body-composition development in term children whose birth weight was appropriate for gestational age Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2007; 86(6): 1700 - 1708. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. S Kramer, L. Matush, I. Vanilovich, R. W Platt, N. Bogdanovich, Z. Sevkovskaya, I. Dzikovich, G. Shishko, J.-P. Collet, R. M Martin, et al. Effects of prolonged and exclusive breastfeeding on child height, weight, adiposity, and blood pressure at age 6.5 y: evidence from a large randomized trial Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2007; 86(6): 1717 - 1721. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. E. Barlow and and the Expert Committee Expert Committee Recommendations Regarding the Prevention, Assessment, and Treatment of Child and Adolescent Overweight and Obesity: Summary Report Pediatrics, December 1, 2007; 120(Supplement_4): S164 - S192. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. M. Davis, B. Gance-Cleveland, S. Hassink, R. Johnson, G. Paradis, and K. Resnicow Recommendations for Prevention of Childhood Obesity Pediatrics, December 1, 2007; 120(Supplement_4): S229 - S253. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. Gahagan Breast feeding and the risk of allergy and asthma BMJ, October 20, 2007; 335(7624): 782 - 783. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. J Blair, J. M D Thompson, P. N Black, D. M O Becroft, P. M Clark, D. Y. Han, E. Robinson, K. E Waldie, C. J Wild, and E. A Mitchell Risk factors for obesity in 7-year-old European children: the Auckland Birthweight Collaborative Study Arch. Dis. Child., October 1, 2007; 92(10): 866 - 871. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 P. J. Martens and L. Romphf Factors Associated With Newborn In-Hospital Weight Loss: Comparisons by Feeding Method, Demographics, and Birthing Procedures J Hum Lact, August 1, 2007; 23(3): 233 - 241. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. P. Gunderson Breastfeeding After Gestational Diabetes Pregnancy: Subsequent obesity and type 2 diabetes in women and their offspring Diabetes Care, July 1, 2007; 30(Supplement_2): S161 - S168. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. M Toschke, R. M Martin, R. von Kries, J. Wells, G. Davey Smith, and A. R Ness Infant feeding method and obesity: body mass index and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry measurements at 9-10 y of age from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, June 1, 2007; 85(6): 1578 - 1585. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. L. Gunther, A. E Buyken, and A. Kroke Protein intake during the period of complementary feeding and early childhood and the association with body mass index and percentage body fat at 7 y of age Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, June 1, 2007; 85(6): 1626 - 1633. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. R. Rudnicka, C. G. Owen, and D. P. Strachan The Effect of Breastfeeding on Cardiorespiratory Risk Factors in Adult Life Pediatrics, May 1, 2007; 119(5): e1107 - e1115. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. Scholtens, U. Gehring, B. Brunekreef, H. A. Smit, J. C. de Jongste, M. Kerkhof, J. Gerritsen, and A. H. Wijga Breastfeeding, Weight Gain in Infancy, and Overweight at Seven Years of Age: The Prevention and Incidence of Asthma and Mite Allergy Birth Cohort Study Am. J. Epidemiol., April 15, 2007; 165(8): 919 - 926. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 P. Saenger, P. Czernichow, I. Hughes, and E. O. Reiter Small for Gestational Age: Short Stature and Beyond Endocr. Rev., April 1, 2007; 28(2): 219 - 251. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. N. Davis, M. J. Weigensberg, G. Q. Shaibi, N. C. Crespo, L. A. Kelly, C. J. Lane, and M. I. Goran Influence of Breastfeeding on Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes Risk Factors in Latino Youth With a Family History of Type 2 Diabetes Diabetes Care, April 1, 2007; 30(4): 784 - 789. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. S. Savage, J. O. Fisher, and L. L. Birch Parental Influence on Eating Behavior: Conception to Adolescence J. Law Med. Ethics, March 1, 2007; 35(1): 22 - 34. [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. E. Clayton, S. Cianfarani, P. Czernichow, G. Johannsson, R. Rapaport, and A. Rogol Management of the Child Born Small for Gestational Age through to Adulthood: A Consensus Statement of the International Societies of Pediatric Endocrinology and the Growth Hormone Research Society J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2007; 92(3): 804 - 810. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 P. D. Taylor and L. Poston Developmental programming of obesity in mammals Exp Physiol, March 1, 2007; 92(2): 287 - 298. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. Byers and R. L. Sedjo Public Health Response to the Obesity Epidemic: Too Soon or Too Late? J. Nutr., February 1, 2007; 137(2): 488 - 492. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. Schack-Nielsen and K. F. Michaelsen Advances in Our Understanding of the Biology of Human Milk and Its Effects on the Offspring J. Nutr., February 1, 2007; 137(2): 503S - 510S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 L. Patterson, P. Jarvis, A. Verma, R. Harrison, and I. Buchan Measuring children and monitoring obesity: surveys of English Primary Care Trusts 2004-06 J. Public Health Med., December 1, 2006; 28(4): 330 - 336. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. M. Taveras, S. L. Rifas-Shiman, K. S. Scanlon, L. M. Grummer-Strawn, B. Sherry, and M. W. Gillman To What Extent Is the Protective Effect of Breastfeeding on Future Overweight Explained by Decreased Maternal Feeding Restriction? Pediatrics, December 1, 2006; 118(6): 2341 - 2348. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. G Owen, R. M Martin, P. H Whincup, G. D. Smith, and D. G Cook Does breastfeeding influence risk of type 2 diabetes in later life? A quantitative analysis of published evidence. Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2006; 84(5): 1043 - 1054. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. J. Mayer-Davis, S. L. Rifas-Shiman, L. Zhou, F. B. Hu, G. A. Colditz, and M. W. Gillman Breast-Feeding and Risk for Childhood Obesity: Does maternal diabetes or obesity status matter? Diabetes Care, October 1, 2006; 29(10): 2231 - 2237. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. N. Jeffery, B. S. Metcalf, J. Hosking, M. J. Murphy, L. D. Voss, and T. J. Wilkin Little Evidence for Early Programming of Weight and Insulin Resistance for Contemporary Children: EarlyBird Diabetes Study Report 19 Pediatrics, September 1, 2006; 118(3): 1118 - 1123. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. S. HAWKINS and C. LAW Treatment and prevention of obesity--are there critical periods for intervention? Int. J. Epidemiol., August 1, 2006; 35(4): 1101 - 1101. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J J Reilly Obesity in childhood and adolescence: evidence based clinical and public health perspectives. Postgrad. Med. J., July 1, 2006; 82(969): 429 - 437. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. L. Burdette, R. C. Whitaker, W. C. Hall, and S. R. Daniels Maternal Infant-Feeding Style and Children's Adiposity at 5 Years of Age Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, May 1, 2006; 160(5): 513 - 520. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. Harder and A. Plagemann TWO OF THE AUTHORS REPLY Am. J. Epidemiol., May 1, 2006; 163(9): 872 - 873. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. L Burdette, R. C Whitaker, W. C Hall, and S. R Daniels Breastfeeding, introduction of complementary foods, and adiposity at 5 y of age Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, March 1, 2006; 83(3): 550 - 558. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. Harder, K. Schellong, and A. Plagemann Differences Between Meta-analyses on Breastfeeding and Obesity Support Causality of the Association Pediatrics, March 1, 2006; 117(3): 987 - 987. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. G. Owen, P. H. Whincup, D. G. Cook, R. M. Martin, and G. D. Smith Differences Between Meta-analyses on Breastfeeding and Obesity Support Causality of the Association: In Reply Pediatrics, March 1, 2006; 117(3): 987 - 988. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
American Heart Association, S. S. Gidding, B. A. Dennison, L. L. Birch, S. R. Daniels, M. W. Gilman, A. H. Lichtenstein, K. T. Rattay, J. Steinberger, N. Stettler, et al. Dietary Recommendations for Children and Adolescents: A Guide for Practitioners Pediatrics, February 1, 2006; 117(2): 544 - 559. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. G Owen, R. M Martin, P. H Whincup, G. Davey-Smith, M. W Gillman, and D. G Cook The effect of breastfeeding on mean body mass index throughout life: a quantitative review of published and unpublished observational evidence Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2005; 82(6): 1298 - 1307. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S Kinra, J H Baumer, and G Davey Smith Early growth and childhood obesity: a historical cohort study Arch. Dis. Child., November 1, 2005; 90(11): 1122 - 1127. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. R.S. Stender, G. A. Burghen, and J. T. Mallare The Role of Health Care Providers in the Prevention of Overweight and Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents Diabetes Spectr, October 1, 2005; 18(4): 240 - 248. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics, S. S. Gidding, B. A. Dennison, L. L. Birch, S. R. Daniels, M. W. Gilman, A. H. Lichtenstein, K. T. Rattay, J. Steinberger, N. Stettler, et al. Dietary Recommendations for Children and Adolescents: A Guide for Practitioners: Consensus Statement From the American Heart Association Circulation, September 27, 2005; 112(13): 2061 - 2075. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
I. E Buchan, R. F Heller, P. Clayton, P. E Bundred, and T. J Cole Early life risk factors for obesity in childhood: Early feeding is crucial target for preventing obesity in children BMJ, August 20, 2005; 331(7514): 453 - 454. [Full Text]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
