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* Neurology Division, Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
University Affiliated Program, Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
Division of Physical and Occupational Therapy, Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
|| Psychiatry Program, Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
¶ Ophthalmology Division, Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
# Department of Neurology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
** Department of Pediatrics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
Department of Psychiatry, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
California State University Northridge, Northridge, California
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Methods. Patients were children with opsoclonus-ataxia caused by neuroblastoma, regardless of interval since diagnosis. Records were reviewed, and children underwent comprehensive evaluations, including neurologic examination and tests of cognitive and adaptive function, speech and language, and fine and gross motor abilities. Psychiatric interview and questionnaires were used to assess current and previous behavior. In 6 children, a videotaped standardized examination of eye movements was performed. Additional examinations were performed immediately before and 2 to 3 days after treatment with IVIg in 5 children.
Results. Seventeen children, ages 1.75 to 12.62 years, were examined. All had a stage I or II neuroblastoma resected 3 months to 11 years previously. None received any other treatment for the tumor. All but 1 had received at least 1 year of either oral corticosteroids or corticotropin (ACTH); 12 had received 1 or more courses of IVIg, 2 g/kg. Three had received other immunosuppressive treatment, including cyclophosphamide. Cognitive development and adaptive behavior were delayed or abnormal in nearly all children. Expressive language was more impaired than receptive language. Speech was impaired, including both intelligibility and overall output. Fine and gross motor abilities were impaired. Increased age was strikingly associated with lower scores in all areas. Behavioral problems early in the course included severe irritability and inconsolability in all; later, oppositional behavior and sleep disorders were reported. Opsoclonus abated in all, but abnormalities in pursuit eye movements were found in all 6 children cooperative with standardized examination. Outcome did not differ in children who were treated with ACTH versus oral steroids. Three children who had received cyclophosphamide fared poorly. Immediate versus delayed treatment was not associated with better outcome. IVIg improved both gross and fine motor and speech function acutely, but we could not confirm long-term benefit of IVIg. Total number of courses of IVIg was not associated with outcome.
Conclusions. Opsoclonus-ataxia caused by neuroblastoma causes substantial developmental sequelae that are not adequately prevented by current treatment. The increased deficits in older children raise concern that this represents a progressive encephalopathy rather than a time-limited single insult. Although the study is cross-sectional and neither randomized nor blinded, we were unable to confirm a purported advantage of either ACTH over corticosteroids or of cyclophosphamide. A randomized study is needed but is difficult for this rare condition.
Key Words: opsoclonus • ataxia • neuroblastoma • paraneoplastic disorders • developmental sequelae
Abbreviations: IVIg, intravenous immunoglobulin • CHLA, ChildrensHospital Los Angeles • OKN, optokinetic • SD, standard deviation • MLU-m, mean length of utterance in morphemes
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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It is commonly assumed that paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes occur when there is antigenic similarity between tumor cells and neurons. Although antibodies may provide some biological control of the tumor, they promote progressive damage to target neurons.21 In several adult syndromes of paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration, identifiable antibodies are associated with the syndrome (anti-Yo in gynecologic malignancies, anti-Hu in small cell carcinoma of the lung).22,23 Recently, Albert et al24 reported that cytotoxic T-lymphocytes were present in blood and cerebrospinal fluid of adults with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration. For one syndrome in which the tumor antigen has been cloned, the cytotoxic T-cells were directed against this antigen.
In children with opsoclonus-ataxia, antineuronal antibodies are less consistently found and their associated antigen is still uncertain, although Connolly et al25,26 recently reported finding antibodies to various components of cerebellar neurons in at least some children with opsoclonus-ataxia. In a study of banked serum samples from children with neuroblastoma with and without opsoclonus-ataxia, antineuronal antibodies were found more frequently in the children with opsoclonus-ataxia but were found in some children with neuroblastoma alone and were highly variable.27 Anti-Hu and Anti-Yo antibodies have been found only rarely.28,29 T-cell activation in childhood opsoclonus-ataxia has not yet been demonstrated but is suspected to be involved in the mechanism of both tumor suppression and neuronal damage.
Adult paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration is neuropathologically characterized by severe loss of Purkinje cells. In children with opsoclonus-ataxia and neuroblastoma, tumors are small and indolent and rarely metastasize or recur after resection, so neuropathological examinations are not available. However, it is generally assumed that similar mechanisms apply to pediatric and adult paraneoplastic syndromes.
Despite treatment with corticosteroids, corticotropin (ACTH), intravenous 
globulin (intravenous immunoglobulin [IVIg]), and a variety of other immunosuppressant medications, most children who have had paraneoplastic opsoclonus-ataxia have significant residual neurologic and developmental deficits.13–15,19,31 Ongoing treatment, usually with corticosteroids, continuously or intermittently, is often required to maintain function such as ambulation, speech, and continued developmental gains.19,31 Children with nonparaneoplastic (presumably postinfectious) opsoclonus-ataxia are also noted to have severe neurologic sequelae despite prolonged treatment with corticosteroids and/or ACTH.32 Other immune-modulating treatments including intravenous globulin (IVIg),33,34 cyclophosphamide, azathioprine, and plasmapheresis have been used, with variable reported success. As recently as the 1980s, it was assumed that the neurologic syndrome often remitted spontaneously after surgical removal of the tumor.35 However, several reports have concluded that neurologic symptoms commonly continue after tumor resection and that development rarely returns fully to normal.14,19,31 Currently, most pediatric neurologists and oncologists who are experienced with opsoclonus-ataxia begin treatment of the neurologic symptoms immediately. However, duration of treatment varies widely, as do goals of treatment, ranging from complete suppression of all neurologic symptoms to more modest goals such as reestablishing independent ambulation.
The role of chemotherapeutic agents is uncertain. One study reported that children who were treated with chemotherapy had better neurologic outcomes.15 Treatment was presumably for the tumor but with secondary effects of significant immunosuppression. A single patient, reported in 1977, who developed ataxia without opsoclonus after detection of neuroblastoma received extensive chemotherapy, with outcome reported to be "good" with only mild mental retardation.36 One patient, published in a previous series at this institution, who had apparent spontaneous resolution of opsoclonus-ataxia immediately after resection of a stage III neuroblastoma received multiagent chemotherapy and reportedly had a good neurologic outcome.19
IVIg has been used as an immunosuppressant therapy for a variety of neurologic conditions with presumed autoimmune causes, including chronic immune demyelinating peripheral neuropathy, Guillain-Barre syndrome,37 adult paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration,38,39 and acute demyelinating encephalomyelopathy.40 Only in Guillain-Barre, chronic immune demyelinating peripheral neuropathy, and multifocal motor neuropathy has use of IVIg been the subject of formal randomized, blinded, clinical trials.41–43 Nonetheless, IVIg is thought to be useful in at least some individuals. No manufacturer of IVIg has yet obtained a labeled indication for any chronic neurologic condition. IVIg has been used for opsoclonus-ataxia with varying dosage schedules, in various combinations with corticosteroids, ACTH, or other medications.44–47 Although parents often report near-immediate changes in neurologic function after an IVIg treatment, these changes have been difficult to quantify or confirm.
This study was undertaken with several goals: 1) to understand the ongoing neurologic and developmental deficits of children who are treated for opsoclonus-ataxia associated with neuroblastomas; 2) to attempt to relate treatment history to outcome; and 3) to attempt objectively to quantify improvements in motor function, speech, mood, and behavior related to IVIg treatment.
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METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Record Review
Medical records were reviewed and parents and physicians were interviewed to obtain the following diagnostic information: age at first presentation of neurologic symptoms, presence of any preexisting developmental delays before opsoclonus-ataxia, duration of opsoclonus-ataxia before resection of neuroblastoma, location and size of tumor, histologic classification, and presence of N-myc amplification if available. Treatment information included time of initiation, duration, and dosage of corticosteroids, ACTH, IVIg, chemotherapy, and other immunosuppressant modalities as well as medications to control symptoms, such as antipsychotics, antidepressants, anxiolytics, clonidine, or sedatives. Imaging studies of the original tumor were reviewed.
Standardized Testing
The specific tests used and age ranges are listed in Table 1. For 4 patients who could not obtain valid basal scores on an age-appropriate test as a result of low level of function, a cognitive function test for a younger age group was used. Scores were converted by calculating mental age divided by chronological age, then converted to standard scores.48
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Motor Examination
Fine motor and gross motor skills were evaluated by an occupational therapist. All of the patients had initial evaluations to determine their level of gross and fine motor skills. The standardized tests that were chosen had comparable gross motor scores and examined balance, bilateral coordination, and ambulation. The fine motor categories were also comparable. Both tests included evaluation of eye-hand coordination, upper limb speed, and dexterity.
Speech and Language Assessment
Each child was evaluated by pediatric speech and language pathologists to determine developmental levels in receptive and expressive vocabulary and language, articulation/speech intelligibility, and oral motor function. A variety of different tests were used, depending on age, level of functioning, and primary language. Test scores were converted to standard scores and combined into 3 domains: receptive vocabulary, expressive vocabulary, and receptive language. Specific measures used for each domain are listed in Table 1. Two additional measures of expressive language (mean length of utterance in morphemes and Brown’s 14 grammatical morphemes) were used in all but 3 patients, who were out of the age range.
Articulation patterns were obtained during all assessment tasks. A formal test of articulation was attempted but could not be completed in most cases as the majority of the children exhibited low tolerance for structured tasks and exhibited difficulties in naming or expressive vocabulary. Intelligibility assessments were made by the same 2 speech/language pathologists and by parental report.
Psychiatric Examination
The child psychiatrist interviewed the parents with their child and other family members who accompanied them. The parents were asked to describe their child’s behavior before and coincident with the onset of neurologic symptoms, past or current psychiatric symptoms, social skills and relationships, and academic function. The parents spontaneously answered open-ended questions based on their memories. The child psychiatrist observed the child’s play and interactions and recorded a mental status examination for each child.
Neurologic Examination
A standard neurologic examination was performed by the child neurologist. Specific attention was paid to eye movements, gait patterns, reflexes, muscle tone, and behavior during the visit.
Examination of Eye Movements
Patients were asked to observe the movement of red lights from a distance of 1 m on a light bar (Tracoustics Inc, Austin, TX). Saccadic stimuli were flashing lights that alternated from center to 10 degrees off center on the vertical and horizontal meridians at a frequency of 1 Hz, 
Hz, and 
Hz. Pendular pursuit stimuli were arrays of light-emitting diodes subtending 0.5 degrees and moving at a sinusoidal velocity either horizontally or vertically over a distance subtending 10 degrees at a frequency of 0.65 Hz, 0.3 Hz, 0.17 Hz, and 0.14 Hz. Optokinetic (OKN) pursuit stimuli were similar arrays of light-emitting diodes separated by a distance of 5 degrees and moving at a constant velocity in one horizontal or vertical direction over a distance subtending 10 degrees. The speed of the OKN stimuli were 22, 11, 7, and 5 degrees/sec.
Eye movements of the patients were recorded on videotape. One observer without knowledge of the duration or severity of the patients’ disease later reviewed this tape. Saccadic eye movements were scored as "good" if they were accurate and maintained the frequency of the stimuli, "fair" if there was mild to moderate dysmetria or delay, and "poor" if accuracy and latency were unreliable. Pendular and OKN pursuit eye movements were scored as "good" if they smoothly maintained the frequency of the stimulus, "fair" if there was mild to moderate jerkiness; lesser quality pursuit was considered "poor."
Reexamination Before and After IVIg
For each child currently receiving IVIg, a brief examination was done before and 2 to 3 days after at least 1 of the treatments. Test selection was determined by results of the detailed baseline examination. Pre- and posttreatment examinations emphasized motor skills, speech, and behavior, as these were the areas that parents most frequently reported as sensitive to the treatment.
Motor Examination
Sample activities were chosen from the initial test for the pre- and post-IVIg testing sessions. The activities that were chosen for the pre- and post-IVIg testing were ones that the patient could do partially but did not fully meet the standards during the initial evaluation.
Because only certain portions of the test were used to score the patient’s pre- and post-IVIg performance, a standardized score was not possible. Despite this, the items used were still scored in a standardized way on a 3-point scale as described by the test developers. Each child’s pre-IVIg performance was measured against his or her post-IVIg performance. The pre- and post-IVIg sessions were also videotaped for later review and comparison. The videotaped material made it possible to detect slight differences in performance that were too subtle to register on the standardized tests, such as changes in quality of performance, tremors, and time needed to complete tasks.
Speech and Language
Post-IVIg assessments of a subgroup of the available study sample consisted primarily of observations of expressive language based on a brief language sample and parental report and of changes in the child’s speech intelligibility per examiner judgment. Because of the short time intervals between pre- and posttreatment conditions, as well as the variable levels of participation by the very youngest of the children, attempts to readminister formal assessment instruments were limited to the vocabulary tests.
Statistical Analysis
To facilitate comparison across age ranges and testing instruments, we converted all speech and language and motor test measurements to z scores, with a mean of 0 and standard deviation (SD) of 1. Statistical evaluation included descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, and Kruskal-Wallis tests, all of which were performed using Minitab, Release 12 (Minitab Corp, State College, PA). Because of the descriptive nature of the study and small sample size, only limited statistical analyses were performed.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Medical Review
Medical diagnostic and treatment information is summarized in Table 2. Fifteen of the 17 children had opsoclonus-ataxia; 2 had ataxia alone, without disorder of eye movements. Neuroblastoma was diagnosed by a variety of imaging modalities, most frequently contrast-enhanced thin-cut computerized tomography. Thirteen children had abdominal tumors, 3 had thoracic tumors, and 1 had a tumor in the neck. All tumors were stage I or stage II, with favorable histopathology in 16 of 17. When tested, n-MYC amplification was absent.
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All children received physical and occupational therapy for periods ranging from a few months to >5 years after diagnosis and with frequency of treatment sessions ranging from monthly to 4 times a week. All but 2 of the children received intervention for speech/language delay. The intensity of the intervention ranged from 1 to 4 sessions a week. Formal hearing test results were not available, but there were no reports or history of hearing impairment. All children who were older than 3 years at the time of evaluation were enrolled in school programs with variable levels of special intervention, ranging from self-contained classes for the multiply handicapped to a few hours a week of resource specialist. None were fully mainstreamed educationally.
Neurologic Findings
One child had a sixth nerve palsy, which developed shortly after onset of opsoclonus-ataxia and had not cleared as of the examination date, 3 months after onset. One had epilepsy (patient 12). At the time of the examination, 2 children were ambulatory only with a walker (patients 9 and 16). Patient 9 had begun treatment with prednisone for the first time shortly before the study visit, 30 months after onset of opsoclonus-ataxia and resection of her neuroblastoma. Subsequent to the study visit, while receiving oral prednisone, she continued to have rapid improvement in motor function and became fully ambulatory without assistance several months later. Patient 16 was treated for approximately 1 year after diagnosis but had been off all immunosuppressive medications for 7 years at the time of the study visit. He was ambulatory only with a walker, had severe drooling, and had essentially no speech. Subsequent to the study visit, he restarted oral corticosteroids with moderate improvement in gait, cessation of drooling, and minor improvements in speech. Patient 1 was not yet fully ambulatory (crawling, pulling to stand, cruising) at the time of the study visit, 3 monthss after diagnosis, while on oral corticosteroids and IVIg. Six patients had mild to moderate lower extremity hyperreflexia (nonsustained clonus, Babinski responses, and/or crossed adductor reflexes), but none had significant clinical spasticity or toe-walking.
Eye Movements
Six patients (patients 11–15 and 17) were cooperative for the videotaped examination of eye movements. All 6 patients had greater impairment of pursuit eye movement than saccadic eye movements. Five patients had good horizontal saccades at all target speeds. None had good vertical saccades at 1 Hz, and only 2 had good vertical saccades at slower target speeds. All patients had poor pursuit of the fastest pendular (0.65 Hz) and OKN (22 degrees/sec) targets. Vertical pursuit eye movement was usually worse and never better than horizontal eye movement. Deficiencies in eye movement usually improved with slower stimuli. Often an eye movement was better in one direction than in the opposite direction, and this directional asymmetry was consistent for any given patient. There seemed to be a relationship between eye movement scores and IQ. However, the small number of patients with eye movement examinations made statistical testing impractical.
Cognitive Functioning
Scores on cognitive and adaptive measures are summarized in Table 3. The neuropsychologic data indicate significant deficits in overall cognitive development. Overall cognitive functioning was normal in only 3 children, whose full scale IQ or Mental Development Index was <1 SD below the norm. All other children were functioning in the impaired range, with IQ or MDI >2 SD below the mean (see Table 3). Adaptive functioning was similarly impaired; only 1 child’s score was within 1 SD of the mean, and 6 were in the borderline range (-1 to -2 SD below normal). Increasing age was associated with increasing deficits in adaptive functioning.
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Motor Skills
Detailed motor testing results are listed in Table 4. In general, younger children were more likely to score within the age-acceptable range than the older children. Ten children were tested using the Peabody Developmental Motor Scale.50 Seven were tested with the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency.51
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In contrast to the mostly acceptable scores for the younger group, the older children had z scores that were mostly below the acceptable range for both gross and fine motor abilities. Two children scored above -1.5 on the balance and strength categories, but all of the other gross motor scores were below the acceptable range and even lower than -2. The fine motor performance of the older group was also below the acceptable age range, and only 1 child could score above -1.5 on response speed and visual motor control.
Speech and Language
Detailed scores on speech and language measures are in Table 5. The majority of the children participated in the assessment tasks with moderate to maximum support to maintain attention and interest. Inconsistency in attending and a tendency for agitation and impulsivity were observed and were judged to be at levels greater than expected in a typical population of children of the same chronological age. In a number of cases, nonparticipation resulted in missing scores. All test scores were converted to z scores for comparison across domains, with the exception of Brown’s 14 morphemes, which is presented as raw score. The language sampling measure, mean length of utterance in morphemes (MLU-m), was converted to z scores by using the formula provided by Miller.52 Language sample sizes obtained were of variable length and in most cases were smaller than the standard 50 utterances on which the normative data are based. In comparison to typically developing children, the low quantity of output noted for most of the study children represented an area of significant clinical deficit.
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The language sample analysis revealed the following results. The range of observed spontaneous utterance length in words for the ages for which this is a valid measure (12 months to 6 years) was 1 to 7. Generally, the observed and reported quantity of verbal production was low. In terms of syntactic complexity referenced by MLU-m, only 5 of 12 children (45%) in the age range had MLU-m within 1 SD of the mean for age. The number of different grammatical morphemes (Brown’s 14) ranged from 0 to 14 morphemes in the sample. Within the standard age range of the measure (27–60 months), the range was 0 to 8. Four children ranging between 30 months and 53 months had 1 or none of the 14 grammatical morphemes in their language samples. In typically developing children, the acquisition of the 14 morphemes corresponds to language stages starting at approximately 27 to 30 months and continuing through 47 to 60 months. Approximately 50% of the morphemes may be acquired by 43 to 46 months, and 100% of the morphemes are generally acquired by 60 months of age. Of 7 patients tested at above 60 months of age, when all 14 morphemes are expected, 1 was nonverbal, 1 had all 14 morphemes, and the remaining patients had from 0 to 8 morphemes.
All of the children in the sample exhibited misarticulations involving single-sound errors, a number of phonological patterns associated with young developmental levels, and single-sound and sound combination distortions associated with oral motor coordination and planning difficulties. Difficulties in coordinating respiration and motor patterns necessary for speech were observed. Intelligibility judgments by the 2 evaluators (unfamiliar individuals versus parents) ranged from 5% to 90%, with the highest intelligibility being observed in a 51-month-old child. Parental reports of intelligibility were in the 30% to 100% range, with the mode being 65%.
Oral motor examination to assess function of the oral mechanism revealed difficulties in volitional control of movements involving tongue elevation and lateralization. Inefficiency in imitating sounds was observed, often characterized by groping postures and exhalation before articulation. Varying patterns of productions of sounds or words imitated were observed. Hypernasal vocal quality and inconsistent volume modulation were also noted.
Psychiatric Examination
All children had significant psychiatric and behavioral disturbances early in their course. The most prominent symptom at the onset of illness, coincident with onset of neurologic symptoms, was irritability, noted in 15 of the 17 patients. Most children were remembered as inconsolable, difficult to soothe, or needing to be held all the time. Night terrors and disturbed sleep were prominent, reported in 10 children. Severe tantrums with self-injurious behaviors, such as head banging, were reported in 7 patients and were distressing to the families. Mood swings and poor affective regulation were sometimes recognized at onset (4 patients) but were associated later with steroid or ACTH therapy in 5 additional patients and persisted into the chronic phase in 8 of 10 patients. This pattern represented a marked change from premorbid personality or temperament, and although these psychiatric symptoms were often the most disruptive for the family, they were not the reason that medical attention was sought.
When the children were seen for psychiatric evaluation, these symptoms had changed but not disappeared. Irritable, dysphoric mood and mood swings were still common problems (10 of 17), and tantrums and oppositional and aggressive behavior were more prominent than earlier (10 of 17). Older children had a history of difficulty with toilet training. Three of 10 had persistent enuresis, and 1 had encopresis.
Treatment Effects
Six children received ACTH, either as primary treatment or after they did not tolerate or respond to oral prednisone. Median IQ (Wechsler D. Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children—III. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation; 1991 or Wechsler D. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence—Revised. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation; 1989) or MDI (Bayley [Bayley N. Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Second Edition. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation; 1993]) of the group that received ACTH was not different from the group that received only oral steroids (67 without ACTH versus 73 with ACTH; P = .366). Similarly, performance on the Vineland Scales (Sparrow SS, Balla DA, Cichetti DV. Survey Form Manual, Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service, Inc; 1984) or the gross motor measures did not differ in the group that received ACTH versus only oral corticosteroids. Fine motor measures tended to be worse in the group that received ACTH, approaching but not reaching statistical significance (z = -3.4 versus -1.75; P = .078). Three children who received chemotherapy were compared with 14 who did not. No measure showed any advantage for the small group that received chemotherapeutic agents, with trends toward lower functioning in the small group that received them. Median IQ or MDI for the 3 children who received other chemotherapy or immune modulating agents was 63, compared with 71 for the other 14 children (P = .101). The effect of total use of IVIg was examined by dividing the patients into 3 groups of approximately equal size. Five received no IVIg, 7 received 1 to 8 courses, and 5 received 10 to 41 courses. Age at evaluation of the 3 groups was similar (3.7 years for the group with no IVIg, 3.3 years for the group with 1 to 8 courses, and 4.3 years for the group with 10 or more courses). There were no significant differences in cognitive, adaptive, or motor functioning among treatment groups. However, the group with no IVIg contained a disproportionate number of children with long delays between onset of symptoms and treatment.
There was a striking relationship between age at evaluation and level of function, with older children exhibiting significantly more deficits in overall adaptive behavior and gross and fine motor function than younger children. Figure 1 plots age versus IQ or MDI and Vineland total score. Figure 2 plots age versus z-transformed gross and fine motor function. Pearson correlation of age with Vineland score was -0.812 (P < .0001), with fine motor function was -0.711 (P < .001), and with gross motor function was -0.753 (P < .0001). Correlation of age and IQ/MDI was -0.398 (NS).
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Acute Effects of IVIg
Five children (ages 16 months to 55 months) were examined immediately before and 1 to 3 days after a treatment with IVIg. Two grams of IVIg per kilogram of body weight were infused over 6 to 8 hours in 4 children. One gram per kilogram daily for 2 doses on 2 successive days was infused in 1 child. Premedication with acetaminophen and diphenhydramine was provided to prevent headache, nausea, or rash.
Speech and Language
An overall increase in the quantity of verbalization was observed and reported after IVIg treatment. This observation by the examiners may have been partially attributable to the posttreatment evaluation’s being the third visit of the child. However, all parents reported increased posttreatment verbal interaction. There were also reports of increased attentiveness to verbal input, as well as increased length of utterance, albeit sometimes in the form of jargon. The examiners observed increased attention to task and decreased agitation during structured activities. No consistent parental reports regarding changes in speech intelligibility were obtained. There was some perception of increased intelligibility by the examiners, but this may have been attributable to familiarity factors, as well as increased verbalization in context.
Motor Skills
Balance, locomotor, and receipt and propulsion skills were the gross motor categories that were affected by the IVIg treatments. Two children were able to climb stairs with an alternate pattern, placing only 1 foot on each stair after the IVIg session, but could not do this task a few days earlier during the evaluation before the IVIg. A younger child who was crawling up the stairs during the pre-IVIg evaluation was able to climb the stairs, placing both feet on each stair while holding onto the rail after her IVIg session. One boy who could not stand on 1 leg before the IVIg session was able to do a single limb stance for 5 seconds. Three of the children tested were able to bounce a tennis ball against a wall after the IVIg session but could not do this task before the IVIg. Eye-hand coordination and hand usage were the fine motor categories that improved after the IVIg treatments. The children were able to copy basic shapes and cut with scissors after the IVIg sessions with more skills and precision than before the treatment.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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We hypothesized that earlier and more intensive treatment would be associated with better outcome. Findings did not support this hypothesis. However, we cannot determine whether the children who were treated more aggressively received such treatment because of more severe symptoms or more frequent relapses, which might be expected to have a poorer neurologic prognosis.
Only 3 children in this group were treated with chemotherapy, at varying times after the onset of symptoms. One child received cyclophosphamide immediately before surgery and for 6 postoperative courses, specifically for opsoclonus-ataxia. A second child received 1 year of cyclophosphamide after she repeatedly relapsed on ACTH and IVIg, with severe psychiatric symptoms and behavioral problems in addition to ataxia. A third child received multiple courses of methotrexate, cyclophosphamide, and chlorambucil after he developed an apparently unrelated autoimmune condition 3 years after diagnosis of opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome. In contrast to the experience of Russo et al,15 these 3 children were functioning at low levels, and the additional chemotherapy did not seem to provide neurologic or developmental protection.
We also did not find a selective advantage of ACTH over oral corticosteroids, although dosage, length of course, and schedules varied too widely to be certain. This contrasts with the experience reported by Hammer et al,31 who found oral steroids to be useless and noted responses only to ACTH. In our group, however, several children who had not responded to high-dose oral corticosteroids (generally 2 mg/kg/d of oral prednisone) responded well to intramuscular ACTH gel, giving some indication that it may provide superior results in some instances. We cannot make any firm conclusion about either the possible role of chemotherapy or the benefit of ACTH, given the descriptive nature of the study. This will require randomized prospective trials. Nevertheless, a great deal of attention has been given to findings of Russo et al,15 attributing a long-term advantage in developmental outcome to use of cyclophosphamide. In view of our results and those of Rudnick et al,13 we caution that a randomized prospective trial of cyclophosphamide is imperative before it is widely introduced for opsoclonus-ataxia.
Treatment with IVIg seemed to confer at least short-term benefits in all 5 children who were examined both before and 2 to 3 days after an infusion. There were clear gains in motor function; both qualitative differences in motor abilities and specific tasks that could not be performed before treatment were completed posttreatment. Speech quality improved, but, more striking, ability to cooperate with the evaluation and overall mood was observed to improve post-IVIg. This study does not provide adequate measures of the long-term efficacy of IVIg in either maintaining improvement or decreasing long-term deficits. We did not find that patients who were treated with many courses of IVIg benefited in long-term comparison to those who were treated with only a few course or none, but, again, this may be confounded by varying disease severity, which dictated more treatment in severely affected children.
Although opsoclonus eventually disappeared in all children, abnormalities of pursuit eye movements and, to a lesser extent, saccadic eye movements persisted in all patients who could cooperate with formal testing.
Considering the disordered features observed in the communication of the young children (younger than 7 years), morphologic and syntactic components of language were the most striking. Even in children with relatively longer sentences, the morphologic markers typically expected in the 26- to 48-month age range were frequently absent. The significantly depressed expressive vocabulary levels, both in quantity and variety, may be a function of overall cognitive developmental levels, which were low in nearly all of the patients.
Speech characteristics responsible for the extremely low levels of intelligibility were also significant for being directly associated with oral, phonatory, and respiratory incoordination. Although some developmentally recognizable misarticulation/phonological patterns were noted, the very poor intelligibility noted is considered to be motor based.
The significant expressive language impairment observed, combined with the severe speech intelligibility problems, results in significantly impaired communicative competence. Even the children who had received early and intensive speech and language intervention exhibited persistent speech and language disorder.
The psychiatric and behavioral aspects of opsoclonus-ataxia deserve special mention, as they have not been emphasized in previous reports and contribute substantially to overall morbidity. Irritability has been noted as a presenting symptom of opsoclonus-ataxia syndrome, regardless of cause. Irritability was recognized as a presenting symptom in earlier studies of opsoclonus-ataxia.19,31 Anecdotal reports documented the reduction in the quality of life in patients with opsoclonus-ataxia, and children were recognized to have persistent disruption of social-emotional stability.53 Extensive psychosocial evaluations of these patients noted "emotional dysregulation" with heightened emotional lability and behavioral regression.53
The concept of "dysmetria or ataxia of thought or behavior" has been introduced in newer studies of the role of the cerebellum and its relationship to the cerebrum, particularly the frontal cortex. Dysfunction in cerebellar-cerebral circuits may underlie the affective dysregulation and behavioral disturbances seen in opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome, as dysfunction of other cerebellar circuits underlie the movement symptoms characteristic of the disorder.
Additional investigation into the treatment of opsoclonus-ataxia is clearly warranted. Given the disparate findings of this and other series of patients with neuroblastoma and opsoclonus-ataxia regarding possible treatment effects (ACTH versus oral steroids, IVIg, and the effects of chemotherapy), a randomized study comparing various treatment modalities is needed.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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We thank Jane Taveras for statistical assistance.
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FOOTNOTES |
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Reprint requests to (W.G.M.) Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, Neurology Division, Box 82, 4650 Sunset Blvd, Los Angeles, CA 90027. E-mail: wmitchell{at}chla.usc.edu
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  S. Taneja, N. Bhandari, T. A Strand, H. Sommerfelt, H. Refsum, P. M Ueland, J. Schneede, R. Bahl, and M. K. Bhan Cobalamin and folate status in infants and young children in a low-to-middle income community in India Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2007; 86(5): 1302 - 1309. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 K. A. P. Schultz, K. K. Ness, J. Whitton, C. Recklitis, B. Zebrack, L. L. Robison, L. Zeltzer, and A. C. Mertens Behavioral and Social Outcomes in Adolescent Survivors of Childhood Cancer: A Report From the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study J. Clin. Oncol., August 20, 2007; 25(24): 3649 - 3656. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 N. Bhandari, S. Taneja, S. Mazumder, R. Bahl, O. Fontaine, M. K. Bhan, and and other members of the Zinc Study Group Adding Zinc to Supplemental Iron and Folic Acid Does Not Affect Mortality and Severe Morbidity in Young Children J. Nutr., January 1, 2007; 137(1): 112 - 117. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. B. Turkel, V. L. Brumm, W. G. Mitchell, and C. J. Tavare Mood and Behavioral Dysfunction With Opsoclonus-Myoclonus Ataxia J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, May 1, 2006; 18(2): 239 - 241. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. W. de Beukelaar and P. A. S. Smitt Managing paraneoplastic neurological disorders. Oncologist, March 1, 2006; 11(3): 292 - 305. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 W. G. Mitchell, V. L. Brumm, C. G. Azen, K. E. Patterson, S. K. Aller, and J. Rodriguez Longitudinal Neurodevelopmental Evaluation of Children With Opsoclonus-Ataxia Pediatrics, |
