This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow An erratum has been published
Right arrow P3Rs: Submit a response
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when P3Rs are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow E-mail this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to My File Cabinet
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via CrossRef
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Committee on Drugs,
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Committee on Drugs,
Related Collections
Right arrow Therapeutics & Toxicology

PEDIATRICS Vol. 108 No. 3 September 2001, pp. 776-789

AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS:
The Transfer of Drugs and Other Chemicals Into Human Milk

Committee on Drugs


    ABSTRACT
Top
Abstract
Introduction
References

The American Academy of Pediatrics places emphasis on increasing breastfeeding in the United States. A common reason for the cessation of breastfeeding is the use of medication by the nursing mother and advice by her physician to stop nursing. Such advice may not be warranted. This statement is intended to supply the pediatrician, obstetrician, and family physician with data, if known, concerning the excretion of drugs into human milk. Most drugs likely to be prescribed to the nursing mother should have no effect on milk supply or on infant well-being. This information is important not only to protect nursing infants from untoward effects of maternal medication but also to allow effective pharmacologic treatment of breastfeeding mothers. Nicotine, psychotropic drugs, and silicone implants are 3 important topics reviewed in this statement.

    INTRODUCTION
Top
Abstract
Introduction
References

A statement on the transfer of drugs and chemicals into human milk was first published in 1983,1 with revisions in 19892 and 1994.3 Information continues to become available. The current statement is intended to revise the lists of agents transferred into human milk and describe their possible effects on the infant or on lactation, if known (Tables 1-7). If a pharmacologic or chemical agent does not appear in the tables, it does not mean that it is not transferred into human milk or that it does not have an effect on the infant; it only indicates that there were no reports found in the literature. These tables should assist the physician in counseling a nursing mother regarding breastfeeding when the mother has a condition for which a drug is medically indicated.

                              
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 

TABLE 1
Cytotoxic Drugs That May Interfere With Cellular Metabolism of the Nursing Infant

    BREASTFEEDING AND SMOKING

In the previous edition of this statement, the Committee on Drugs placed nicotine (smoking) in Table 2, "Drugs of Abuse-Contraindicated During Breastfeeding." The reasons for placing nicotine and, thus, smoking in Table 2 were documented decrease in milk production and weight gain in the infant of the smoking mother and exposure of the infant to environmental tobacco smoke as demonstrated by the presence of nicotine and its primary metabolite, cotinine, in human milk.4-12 There is controversy regarding the effects of nicotine on infant size at 1 year of age.13,14 There are hundreds of compounds in tobacco smoke; however, nicotine and its metabolite acotinine are most often used as markers of tobacco exposure. Nicotine is not necessarily the only component that might cause an increase in respiratory illnesses (including otitis media) in the nursing infant attributable to both transmammary secretion of compounds and environmental exposure. Nicotine is present in milk in concentrations between 1.5 and 3.0 times the simultaneous maternal plasma concentration,15 and elimination half-life is similar---60 to 90 minutes in milk and plasma.7 There is no evidence to document whether this amount of nicotine presents a health risk to the nursing infant.

                              
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 

TABLE 2
Drugs of Abuse for Which Adverse Effects on the Infant During Breastfeeding Have Been Reported*

The Committee on Drugs wishes to support the emphasis of the American Academy of Pediatrics on increasing breastfeeding in the United States. Pregnancy and lactation are ideal occasions for physicians to urge cessation of smoking. It is recognized that there are women who are unable to stop smoking cigarettes. One study reported that, among women who continue to smoke throughout breastfeeding, the incidence of acute respiratory illness is decreased among their infants, compared with infants of smoking mothers who are bottle fed.16 It may be that breastfeeding and smoking is less detrimental to the child than bottle feeding and smoking. The Committee on Drugs awaits more data on this issue. The Committee on Drugs therefore has not placed nicotine (and thus smoking) in any of the Tables but hopes that the interest in breastfeeding by a smoking woman will serve as a point of discussion about smoking cessation between the pediatrician and the prospective lactating woman or nursing mother. Alternate (oral, transcutaneous) sources of nicotine to assist with smoking cessation, however, have not been studied sufficiently for the Committee on Drugs to make a recommendation for or against them in breastfeeding women.

    PSYCHOTROPIC DRUGS

Anti-anxiety drugs, antidepressants, and neuroleptic drugs have been placed in Table 4, "Drugs for Which the Effect on Nursing Infants is Unknown but May Be of Concern." These drugs appear in low concentrations (usually with a milk-to-plasma ratio of 0.5-1.0) in milk after maternal ingestion. Because of the long half-life of these compounds and some of their metabolites, nursing infants may have measurable amounts in their plasma and tissues, such as the brain. This is particularly important in infants during the first few months of life, with immature hepatic and renal function. Nursing mothers should be informed that if they take one of these drugs, the infant will be exposed to it. Because these drugs affect neurotransmitter function in the developing central nervous system, it may not be possible to predict long-term neurodevelopmental effects.

                              
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 

TABLE 4
Drugs for Which the Effect on Nursing Infants Is Unknown but May Be of Concern*

    SILICONE BREAST IMPLANTS AND BREASTFEEDING

Approximately 800 000 to 1 million women in the United States have received breast implants containing silicone (elemental silicon with chemical bonds to oxygen) in the implant envelope or in the envelope and the interior gel. Concern has been raised about the possible effects to the nursing infant if mothers with implants breastfeed. This concern was initially raised in reports that described esophageal dysfunction in 11 children whose mothers had implants.17,18 This finding has not been confirmed by other reports. Silicone chemistry is extremely complex; the polymer involved in the covering and the interior of the breast implant consists of a polymer of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms with methyl groups attached to the oxygen groups (methyl polydimethylsiloxane).19 The length of the polymer determines whether it is a solid, gel, or liquid. There are only a few instances of the polymer being assayed in the milk of women with implants; the concentrations are not elevated over control samples.20 There is no evidence at the present time that this polymer is directly toxic to human tissues; however, concern also exists that toxicity may be mediated through an immunologic mechanism. This has yet to be confirmed in humans. Except for the study cited above, there have been no other reports of clinical problems in infants of mothers with silicone breast implants.21 It is unlikely that elemental silicon causes difficulty, because silicon is present in higher concentrations in cow milk and formula than in milk of humans with implants.22 The anticolic compound simethicone is a silicone and has a structure very similar to the methyl polydimethylsiloxane in breast implants. Simethicone has been used for decades in this country and Europe without any evidence of toxicity to infants. The Committee on Drugs does not feel that the evidence currently justifies classifying silicone implants as a contraindication to breastfeeding.

    DRUG THERAPY OF THE LACTATING WOMAN

The following should be considered before prescribing drugs to lactating women:

  1. Is drug therapy really necessary? If drugs are required, consultation between the pediatrician and the mother's physician can be most useful in determining what options to choose.
  2. The safest drug should be chosen, for example, acetaminophen rather than aspirin for analgesia.
  3. If there is a possibility that a drug may present a risk to the infant, consideration should be given to measurement of blood concentrations in the nursing infant.
  4. Drug exposure to the nursing infant may be minimized by having the mother take the medication just after she has breastfed the infant or just before the infant is due to have a lengthy sleep period.

Data have been obtained from a search of the medical literature. Because methodologies used to quantitate drugs in milk continue to improve, this information will require frequent updating. Drugs cited in Tables 1 through 7 are listed in alphabetical order by generic name; brand names are available from the current Physicians' Desk Reference,23 USP DI 2001: Drug Information for the Health Care Professional, Volume I,24 and USP Dictionary of USAN and International Drug Names.25 The reference list is not inclusive of all articles published on the topic.

Physicians who encounter adverse effects in infants who have been receiving drug-contaminated human milk are urged to document these effects in a communication to the Food and Drug Administration (http://www.fda.gov/medwatch/index.html) and to the Committee on Drugs. This communication should include the generic and brand names of the drug, the maternal dose and mode of administration, the concentration of the drug in milk and maternal and infant blood in relation to the time of ingestion, the method used for laboratory identification, the age of the infant, and the adverse effects. Such reports may substantially increase the pediatric community's fund of knowledge regarding drug transfer into human milk and the potential or actual risk to the infant.

                              
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 

TABLE 3
Radioactive Compounds That Require Temporary Cessation of Breastfeeding*

                              
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 

TABLE 5
Drugs That Have Been Associated With Significant Effects on Some Nursing Infants and Should Be Given to Nursing Mothers With Caution*

                              
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 

TABLE 6
Maternal Medication Usually Compatible With Breastfeeding*

                              
View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
 

TABLE 7
Food and Environmental Agents: Effects on Breastfeeding

Committee on Drugs, 2000-2001

Robert M. Ward, MD, Chairperson

Brian A. Bates, MD

William E. Benitz, MD

David J. Burchfield, MD

John C. Ring, MD

Richard P. Walls, MD, PhD

Philip D. Walson, MD

Liaisons

John Alexander, MD

Food and Drug Administration Alternate

Donald R. Bennett, MD, PhD

American Medical Association/United States Pharmacopeia

Therese Cvetkovich, MD

Food and Drug Administration

Owen R. Hagino, MD

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

Stuart M. MacLeod, MD, PhD

Canadian Paediatric Society

Siddika Mithani, MD

Bureau of Pharmaceutical Assessment Health Protection Branch, Canada

Joseph Mulinare, MD, MSPH

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Laura E. Riley, MD

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists

Sumner J. Yaffe, MD

National Institutes of Health

Section Liaisons

Charles J. Coté, MD

Section on Anesthesiology

Eli O. Meltzer, MD

Section on Allergy and Immunology

Consultant

Cheston M. Berlin, Jr, MD

Staff

Raymond J. Koteras, MHA

    ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The Committee on Drugs would like to thank Linda Watson for her work in reference identification, document retrieval, and manuscript preparation.

    FOOTNOTES

The recommendations in this statement do not indicate an exclusive course of treatment or serve as a standard of medical care. Variations, taking into account individual circumstances, may be appropriate.

    REFERENCES
Top
Abstract
Introduction
References
  1. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Drugs The transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human breast milk. Pediatrics 1983; 72:375-383 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Drugs Transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics 1989; 84:924-936 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Drugs Transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics 1994; 93:137-150 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Bisdom W Alcohol and nicotine poisoning in nurslings. JAMA 1937; 109:178
  5. Ferguson BB, Wilson DJ, Schaffner W Determination of nicotine concentrations in human milk. Am J Dis Child 1976; 130:837-839 [Abstract]
  6. Luck W, Nau H Nicotine and cotinine concentrations in the milk of smoking mothers: influence of cigarette consumption and diurnal variation. Eur J Pediatr 1987; 146:21-26 [CrossRef][Medline]
  7. Luck W, Nau H Nicotine and cotinine concentrations in serum and milk of nursing mothers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1984; 18:9-15 [Medline]
  8. Luck W, Nau H Nicotine and cotinine concentrations in serum and urine of infants exposed via passive smoking or milk from smoking mothers. J Pediatr 1985; 107:816-820 [CrossRef][Medline]
  9. Labrecque M, Marcoux S, Weber JP, Fabia J, Ferron L Feeding and urine cotinine values in babies whose mothers smoke. Pediatrics 1989; 83:93-97 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  10. Schwartz-Bickenbach D, Schulte-Hobein B, Abt S, Plum C, Nau H Smoking and passive smoking during pregnancy and early infancy: effects on birth weight, lactation period, and cotinine concentrations in mother's milk and infant's urine. Toxicol Lett 1987; 35:73-81 [CrossRef][Medline]
  11. Schulte-Hobein B, Schwartz-Bickenbach D, Abt S, Plum C, Nau H Cigarette smoke exposure and development of infants throughout the first year of life: influence of passive smoking and nursing on cotinine levels in breast milk and infant's urine. Acta Paediatr 1992; 81:550-557 [Medline]
  12. Hopkinson JM, Schanler RJ, Fraley JK, Garza C Milk production by mothers of premature infants: influence of cigarette smoking. Pediatrics 1992; 90:934-938 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  13. Little RE, Lambert MD III, Worthington-Roberts B, Ervin CH Maternal smoking during lactation: relation to infant size at one year of age. Am J Epidemiol 1994; 140:544-554 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  14. Boshuizen HC, Verkerk PH, Reerink JD, Herngreen WP, Zaadstra BM, Verloove-Vanhorick SP Maternal smoking during lactation: relation to growth during the first year of life in a Dutch birth cohort. Am J Epidemiol 1998; 147:117-126 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  15. Steldinger R, Luck W, Nau H Half lives of nicotine in milk of smoking mothers: implications for nursing. J Perinat Med 1988; 16:261-262 [Medline]
  16. Woodward A, Douglas RM, Graham NM, Miles H Acute respiratory illness in Adelaide children: breast feeding modifies the effect of passive smoking. J Epidemiol Community Health 1990; 44:224-230 [Abstract]
  17. Levine JJ, Ilowite NT Sclerodermalike esophageal disease in children breast-fed by mothers with silicone breast implants. JAMA 1994; 271:213-216 [Abstract]
  18. Levine JJ, Trachtman H, Gold DM, Pettei MJ Esophageal dysmotility in children breast-fed by mothers with silicone breast implants: long-term follow-up and response to treatment. Dig Dis Sci 1996; 41:1600-1603 [CrossRef][Medline]
  19. LeVier RR, Harrison MC, Cook RR, Lane TH What is silicone? Plast Reconstr Surg 1993; 92:163-167 [Medline]
  20. Berlin CM Jr Silicone breast implants and breast-feeding. Pediatrics 1994; 94:547-549 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  21. Kjoller K, Mclaughlin JK, Friis S, Health outcomes in offspring of mothers with breast implants. Pediatrics 1998; 102:1112-1115 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  22. Semple JL, Lugowski SJ, Baines CJ, Smith DC, McHugh A Breast milk contamination and silicone implants: preliminary results using silicon as a proxy measurement for silicone. Plast Reconstr Surg 1998; 102:528-533 [Medline]
  23. Physicians' Desk Reference. Montvale, NJ: Medical Economics Company; 2001
  24. US Pharmacopeia. USP DI 2001: Information for the Health Care Professional, Volume I. Hutchinson TA, ed. Englewood, CO: Micromedex; 2001
  25. US Pharmacopeia. USP Dictionary of USAN and International Drug Names. Rockville, MD: US Pharmacopeia; 2000
  26. Wiernik PH, Duncan JH Cyclophosphamide in human milk. Lancet 1971; 1:912 [Medline]
  27. Amato D, Niblett JS Neutropenia from cyclophosphamide in breast milk. Med J Aust 1977; 1:383-384 [Medline]
  28. Flechner SM, Katz AR, Rogers AJ, Van Buren C, Kahan BD The presence of cyclosporine in body tissue and fluids during pregnancy. Am J Kidney Dis 1985; 5:60-63 [Medline]
  29. Nyberg G, Haljamae , Frisenette-Fich C, Wennergren M, Kjellmer I Breast-feeding during treatment with cyclosporine. Transplantation 1998; 65:253-255 [Medline]
  30. Egan PC, Costanza ME, Dodion P, Egorin MJ, Bachur NR Doxorubicin and cisplatin excretion into human milk. Cancer Treat Rep 1985; 69:1387-1389 [Medline]
  31. Johns DG, Rutherford LD, Leighton PC, Vogel CL Secretion of methotrexate into human milk. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1972; 112:978-980 [Medline]
  32. Steiner E, Villen T, Hallberg M, Rane A Amphetamine secretion in breast milk. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1984; 27:123-124 [Medline]
  33. Chasnoff IJ, Lewis DE, Squires L Cocaine intoxication in a breast-fed infant. Pediatrics 1987; 80:836-838 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  34. Cobrinik RW, Hood RT Jr, Chusid E The effect of maternal narcotic addiction on the newborn infant: review of literature and report of 22 cases. Pediatrics 1959; 24:288-304 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  35. Perez-Reyes M, Wall ME Presence of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in human milk. N Engl J Med 1982; 307:819-820 [Medline]
  36. Kaufman KR, Petrucha RA, Pitts FN Jr, Weekes ME PCP in amniotic fluid and breast milk: case report. J Clin Psychiatry 1983; 44:269-270 [Medline]
  37. McArdle HJ, Danks DM Secretion of copper 64 into breast milk following intravenous injection in a human subject. J Trace Elem Exp Med 1991; 4:81-84
  38. Tobin RE, Schneider PB Uptake of 67Ga in the lactating breast and its persistence in milk: case report. J Nucl Med 1976; 17:1055-1056 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  39. Butt D, Szaz KF Indium-111 radioactivity in breast milk. Br J Radiol 1986; 59:80 [Medline]
  40. Hedrick WR, Di Simone RN, Keen RL Radiation dosimetry from breast milk excretion of radioiodine and pertechnetate. J Nucl Med 1986; 27:1569-1571 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  41. Rose MR, Prescott MC, Herman KJ Excretion of iodine-123-hippuran, technetium-99 m-red blood cells, and technetium-99 m-macroaggregated albumin into breast milk. J Nucl Med 1990; 31:978-984 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  42. Palmer KE Excretion of 125I in breast milk following administration of labelled fibrinogen. Br J Radiol 1979; 52:672-673 [Medline]
  43. Honour AJ, Myant NB, Rowlands EN Secretion of radioiodine in digestive juices and milk in man. Clin Sci 1952; 11:447-462
  44. Karjalainen P, Penttila IM, Pystynen P The amount and form of radioactivity in human milk after lung scanning, renography and placental localization by 131 I labelled tracers. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1971; 50:357-361 [Medline]
  45. Bland EP, Docker MF, Crawford JS, Farr RF Radioactive iodine uptake by thyroid of breast-fed infants after maternal blood-volume measurements. Lancet 1969; 2:1039-1041 [Medline]
  46. Nurnberger CE, Lipscomb A Transmission of radioiodine (I131) to infants through human maternal milk. JAMA 1952; 150:1398-1400
  47. Robinson PS, Barker P, Campbell A, Henson P, Surveyor I, Young PR Iodine-131 in breast milk following therapy for thyroid carcinoma. J Nucl Med 1994; 35:1797-1801 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  48. Rubow S, Klopper J, Wasserman H, Baard B, van Niekerk M The excretion of radiopharmaceuticals in human breast milk: additional data and dosimetry. Eur J Nucl Med 1994; 21:144-153 [Medline]
  49. Pommerenke WT, Hahn PF Secretion of radio-active sodium in human milk. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1943; 52:223-224
  50. O'Connell ME, Sutton H Excretion of radioactivity in breast milk following 99Tcm-Sn polyphosphate. Br J Radiol 1976; 49:377-379 [Medline]
  51. Berke RA, Hoops EC, Kereiakes JC, Saenger EL Radiation dose to breast-feeding. J Nucl Med 1973; 14:51-52 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  52. Vagenakis AG, Abreau CM, Braverman LE Duration of radioactivity in the milk of a nursing mother following 99 mTc administration. J Nucl Med 1971; 12:188 [Free Full Text]
  53. Wyburn JR Human breast milk excretion of radionuclides following administration of radiopharmaceuticals. J Nucl Med 1973; 14:115-117 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  54. Pittard WB III, Merkatz R, Fletcher BD Radioactive excretion in human milk following administration of technetium Tc 99 m macroaggregated albumin. Pediatrics 1982; 70:231-234 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  55. Maisels MJ, Gilcher RO Excretion of technetium in human milk. Pediatrics 1983; 71:841-842 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  56. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Drugs Psychotropic drugs in pregnancy and lactation. Pediatrics 1982; 69:241-244 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  57. Oo CY, Kuhn RJ, Desai N, Wright CE, McNamara PJ Pharmacokinetics in lactating women: prediction of alprazolam transfer into milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1995; 40:231-236 [Medline]
  58. Patrick MJ, Tilstone WJH, Reavey P Diazepam and breast-feeding. Lancet 1972; 1:542-543 [Medline]
  59. Cole AP, Hailey DM Diazepam and active metabolite in breast milk and their transfer to the neonate. Arch Dis Child 1975; 50:741-742 [Medline]
  60. Dusci LJ, Good SM, Hall RW, Ilett KF Excretion of diazepam and its metabolites in human milk during withdrawal from combination high dose diazepam and oxazepam. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1990; 29:123-126 [Medline]
  61. Borgatta L, Jenny RW, Gruss L, Ong C, Barad D Clinical significance of methohexital, meperidine, and diazepam in breast milk. J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 37:186-192 [Abstract]
  62. Dencker SJ, Johansson G, Milsom I Quantification of naturally occurring benzodiazepine-like substances in human breast milk. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1992; 107:69-72 [CrossRef][Medline]
  63. Summerfield RJ, Nielson MS Excretion of lorazepam into breast milk. Br J Anaesth 1985; 57:1042-1043 [Free Full Text]
  64. Matheson I, Lunde PK, Bredesen JE Midazolam and nitrazepam in the maternity ward: milk concentrations and clinical effects. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1990; 30:787-793 [Medline]
  65. Olesen OV, Bartels U, Poulsen JH Perphenazine in breast milk and serum. Am J Psychiatry 1990; 147:1378-1379 [Free Full Text]
  66. Brodie RR, Chasseaud LF, Taylor T Concentrations of N-descyclopropylmethylprazepam in whole-blood, plasma, and milk after administration of prazepam to humans. Biopharm Drug Dispos 1981; 2:59-68 [CrossRef][Medline]
  67. Hilbert JM, Gural RP, Symchowicz S, Zampaglione N Excretion of quazepam into human breast milk. J Clin Pharmacol 1984; 24:457-462 [Abstract]
  68. Lebedevs TH, Wojnar-Horton RE, Yapp P, Excretion of temazepam in breast milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1992; 33:204-206 [Medline]
  69. Bader TF, Newman K Amitriptyline in human breast milk and the nursing infant's serum. Am J Psychiatry 1980; 137:855-856 [Free Full Text]
  70. Erickson SH, Smith GH, Heidrich F Tricyclics and breast feeding. Am J Psychiatry 1979; 136:1483-1484 [Medline]
  71. Gelenberg AJ Single case stuy. Amoxapine, a new antidepressant, appears in human milk. J Nerv Ment Dis 1979; 167:635-636 [CrossRef][Medline]
  72. Briggs GG, Samson JH, Ambrose PJ, Schroeder DH Excretion of bupropion in breast milk. Ann Pharmacother 1993; 27:431-433 [Abstract]
  73. Schimmell MS, Katz EZ, Shaag Y, Pastuszak A, Koren G Toxic neonatal effects following maternal clomipramine therapy. Clin Toxicol 1991; 29:479-484 [Medline]
  74. Sovner R, Orsulak PJ Excretion of imipramine and desipramine in human breast milk. Am J Psychiatry 1979; 136:451-452
  75. Stancer HC, Reed KL Desipramine and 2-hydroxydesipramine in human breast milk and the nursery infant's serum. Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143:1597-1600 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  76. Rees JA, Glass RC, Sporne GA Serum and breast-milk concentrations of dothiepin [letter]. Practitioner 1976; 217:686
  77. Ilett KF, Lebedevs TH, Wojnar-Horton RE, The excretion of dothiepin and its primary metabolites in breast milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1992; 33:635-639 [Medline]
  78. Kemp J, Ilett KF, Booth J, Hackett LP Excretion of doxepin and N-desmethyldoxepin in human milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1985; 20:497-499 [Medline]
  79. Burch KJ, Wells BG Fluoxetine/norfluoxetine concentrations in human milk. Pediatrics 1992; 89:676-677 [Medline]
  80. Lester BM, Cucca J, Andreozzi L, Flanagan P, Oh W Possible association between fluoxetine hydrochloride and colic in an infant. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1993; 32:1253-1255 [Medline]
  81. Burch KJ, Wells BG Fluoxetine/norfluoxetine concentrations in human milk. Pediatrics 1992; 89:676-677
  82. Taddio A, Ito S, Koren G Excretion of fluoxetine and its metabolite, norfluoxetine, in human breast milk. J Clin Pharmacol 1996; 36:42-47 [Abstract]
  83. Brent NB, Wisner KL Fluoxetine and carbamazepine concentrations in a nursing mother/infant pair. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1998; 37:41-44 [Free Full Text]
  84. Isenberg KE Excretion of fluoxetine in human breast milk. J Clin Psychiatry 1990; 51:169 [Medline]
  85. Nulman I, Koren G The safety of fluoxetine during pregnancy and lactation. Teratology 1996; 53:304-308 [CrossRef][Medline]
  86. Yoshida K, Smith B, Craggs M, Kumar RC Fluoxetine in breast-milk and developmental outcome of breast-fed infants. Br J Psychiatry 1998; 172:175-178 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  87. Chambers CD, Anderson PO, Thomas RG, et al. Weight gain in infants breastfed by mothers who take fluoxetine. Pediatrics. 1999;104(5). Available at: http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/104/5/e61. Accessed December 20, 2000
  88. Wright S, Dawling S, Ashford JJ Excretion of fluvoxamine in breast milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1991; 31:209 [Medline]
  89. Wisner KL, Perel JM Serum nortriptyline levels in nursing mothers and their infants. Am J Psychiatry 1991; 148:1234-1236 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  90. Wisner KL, Perel JM Nortriptyline treatment of breast-feeding women. Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153:295
  91. Stowe ZN, Cohen LS, Hostetter A, Ritchie JC, Owens MJ, Nemeroff CB Paroxetine in human breast milk and nursing infants. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157:185-189 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  92. Epperson CN, Anderson GM, McDougle CJ Sertraline and breast-feeding. N Engl J Med 1997; 336:1189-1190 [Free Full Text]
  93. Stowe ZN, Owens MJ, Landry JC, Sertraline and desmethylsertraline in human breast milk and nursing infants. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154:1255-1260 [Abstract]
  94. Verbeeck RK, Ross SG, McKenna EA Excretion of trazodone in breast milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1986; 22:367-370 [Medline]
  95. Polishuk WZ, Kulcsar SA Effects of chlorpromazine on pituitary function. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1956; 16:292
  96. Wiles DH, Orr MW, Kolakowska T Chlorpromazine levels in plasma and milk of nursing mothers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1978; 5:272-273 [Medline]
  97. Nielsen ST, Matheson I, Rasmussen JN, Skinnemoen K, Andrew E, Hafsahl G Excretion of iohexol and metrizoate in human breast milk. Acta Radiol 1987; 28:523-526 [Medline]
  98. Ohkubo T, Shimoyama R, Sugawara K Determination of chlorpromazine in human breast milk and serum by high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr 1993; 614:328-332 [Medline]
  99. Matheson I, Evang A, Overo KF, Syversen G Presence of chlorprothixene and its metabolites in breast milk. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1984; 27:611-613 [CrossRef][Medline]
  100. Barnas C, Bergant A, Hummer M, Saria A, Fleischhacker WW Clozapine concentrations in maternal and fetal plasma, amniotic fluid, and breast milk. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151:945 [Free Full Text]
  101. Stewart RB, Karas B, Springer PK Haloperidol excretion in human milk. Am J Psychiatry 1980; 137:849-850 [Free Full Text]
  102. Whalley LJ, Blain PG, Prime JK Haloperidol secreted in breast milk. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1981; 282:1746-1747
  103. Ohkubo T, Shimoyama R, Sugawara K Measurement of haloperidol in human breast milk by high-performance liquid chromatography. J Pharm Sci 1992; 81:947-949 [CrossRef][Medline]
  104. Yoshida K, Smith B, Craggs M, Kumar RC Neuroleptic drugs in breast milk: a study of pharmacokinetics and of possible adverse effects in breast-fed infants. Psychol Med 1998; 28:81-91 [CrossRef][Medline]
  105. Ananth J Side effects in the neonate from psychotropic agents excreted through breast-feeding. Am J Psychiatry 1978; 135:801-805 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  106. Plomp TA, Vulsma T, de Vijlder JJ Use of amiodarone during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1992; 43:201-207 [Medline]
  107. Havelka J, Hejzlar M, Popov V, Viktorinova D, Prochazka J Excretion of chloramphenicol in human milk. Chemotherapy 1968; 13:204-211 [Medline]
  108. Smadel JE, Woodward TE, Ley HL Jr, Chloramphenicol (Chloromycetin) in the treatment of tsutsugamushi disease (scrub typhus). J Clin Invest 1949; 28:1196
  109. Venkatesan K, Mathur A, Girdhar A, Girdhar BK Excretion of clofazimine in human milk in leprosy patients. Lepr Rev 1997; 68:242-246 [Medline]
  110. Tomson T, Ohman I, Vitols S Lamotrigine in pregnancy and lactation: a case report. Epilepsia 1997; 38:1039-1041 [CrossRef][Medline]
  111. Gupta AP, Gupta PK Metoclopramide as a lactogogue. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1985; 24:269-272
  112. Kauppila A, Arvela P, Koivisto M, Kivinen S, Ylikorkala O, Pelkonen O Metoclopramide and breast feeding: transfer into milk and the newborn. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1983; 25:819-823 [CrossRef][Medline]
  113. Erickson SH, Oppenheim GL, Smith GH Metronidazole in breast milk. Obstet Gynecol 1981; 57:48-50 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  114. Heisterberg L, Branebjerg PE Blood and milk concentrations of metronidazole in mothers and infants. J Perinat Med 1983; 11:114-120 [Medline]
  115. Evaldson GR, Lindgren S, Nord CE, Rane AT Tinidazole milk excretion and pharmacokinetics in lactating women. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1985; 19:503-507 [Medline]
  116. Boutroy MJ, Bianchetti G, Dubruc C, Vert P, Morselli PL To nurse when receiving acebutolol: is it dangerous for the neonate? Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1986; 30:737-739 [CrossRef][Medline]
  117. Nelis GF Diarrhoea due to 5-aminosalicylic acid in breast milk. Lancet 1989; 1:383 [Medline]
  118. Jenss H, Weber P, Hartmann F 5-Aminosalicylic acid its metabolite in breast milk during lactation [letter]. Am J Gastroenterol 1990; 85:331 [Medline]
  119. Klotz U, Harings-Kaim A Negligible excretion of 5-aminosalicylic acid in breast milk. Lancet 1993; 342:618-619 [CrossRef][Medline]
  120. Liedholm H, Melander A, Bitzen PO, Accumulation of atenolol and metoprolol in human breast milk. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1981; 20:229-231 [CrossRef][Medline]
  121. Schimmel MS, Eidelman AI, Wilschanski MA, Shaw D Jr, Ogilvie RJ, Koren G Toxic effects of atenolol consumed during breast feeding. J Pediatr 1989; 114:476-478 [CrossRef][Medline]
  122. Thorley KJ, McAinsh J Levels of the beta-blockers atenolol and propanolol in the breast milk of women treated for hypertension in pregnancy. Biopharm Drug Dispos 1983; 4:299-301 [CrossRef][Medline]
  123. Kulas J, Lunell NO, Rosing U, Steen B, Rane A Atenolol and metoprolol. A comparison of their excretion into human breast milk. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand Suppl 1984; 118:65-69 [Medline]
  124. White WB, Andreoli JW, Wong SH, Cohn RD Atenolol in human plasma and breast milk. Obstet Gynecol 1984; 63:42S-44S
  125. Kulski JK, Hartmann PE, Martin JD, Smith M Effects of bromocriptine mesylate on the composition of the mammary secretion in non-breast-feeding women. Obstet Gynecol 1978; 52:38-42 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  126. Katz M, Kroll D, Pak I, Osimoni A, Hirsch M Puerperal hypertension, stroke, and seizures after suppression of lactation with bromocriptine. Obstet Gynecol 1985; 66:822-824 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  127. Clark JH, Wilson WG A 16-day-old breast-fed infant with metabolic acidosis caused by salicylate. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1981; 20:53-54
  128. Levy G. Salicylate pharmacokinetics in the human neonate. In: Marselli PL, ed. Basic and Therapeutic Aspects of Perinatal Pharmacology. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1975:319
  129. Jamali F, Keshavarz E Salicylate excretion in breast milk. Int J Pharm 1981; 8:285-290 [CrossRef]
  130. Kok TH, Taitz LS, Bennett MJ, Holt DW Drowsiness due to clemastine transmitted in breast milk. Lancet 1982; 1:914-915 [Medline]
  131. Fomina PI Untersuchungen uber den Ubergang des aktiven agens des Mutterkorns in die milch stillender Mutter. Arch Gynecol 1934; 157:275
  132. Schou M, Amdisen A Lithium and pregnancy. 3. Lithium ingestion by children breast-fed by women on lithium treatment. Br Med J 1973; 2:138
  133. Tunnessen WW Jr, Hertz CG Toxic effects of lithium in newborn infants: a commentary. J Pediatr 1972; 81:804-807 [CrossRef][Medline]
  134. Sykes PA, Quarrie J, Alexander FW Lithium carbonate and breast-feeding. Br Med J 1976; 2:1299
  135. Eckstein HB, Jack B Breast-feeding and anticoagulant therapy. Lancet 1970; 1:672-673 [Medline]
  136. Nau H, Rating D, Hauser I, Jager E, Koch S, Helge H Placental transfer and pharmacokinetics of primidone and its metabolites phenobarbital, PEMA and hydroxyphenobarbital in neonates and infants of epileptic mothers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1980; 18:31-42 [CrossRef][Medline]
  137. Kuhnz W, Koch S, Helge H, Nau H Primidone and phenobarbital during lactation period in epileptic women: total and free drug serum levels in the nursed infants and their effects on neonatal behavior. Dev Pharmacol Ther 1988; 11:147-154 [Medline]
  138. Finch E, Lorber J Methaemoglobinaemia in newborn probably due to phenytoin excreted in human milk. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Emp 1954; 61:833-834 [Medline]
  139. Tyson RM, Shrader EA, Perlman HH Drugs transmitted through breast milk. II. Barbiturates. J Pediatr 1938; 13:86-90 [CrossRef]
  140. Knott C, Reynolds F, Clayden G Infantile spasms on weaning from breast milk containing anticonvulsants. Lancet 1987; 2:272-273 [Medline]
  141. Branski D, Kerem E, Gross-Kieselstein E, Hurvitz H, Litt R, Abrahamov A Bloody diarrhea---a possible complication of sulfasalazine transferred through human breast milk. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1986; 5:316-317 [Medline]
  142. Berlin CM Jr, Yaffe SJ, Ragni M Disposition of acetaminophen in milk, saliva, and plasma of lactating women. Pediatr Pharmacol (New York) 1980; 1:135-141 [Medline]
  143. Bitzen PO, Gustafsson B, Jostell KG, Melander A, Wahlin-Boll E Excretion of paracetamol in human breast milk. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1981; 20:123-125 [CrossRef][Medline]
  144. Findlay JW, DeAngelis RL, Kearney MF, Welch RM, Findlay JM Analgesic drugs in breast milk and plasma. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1981; 29:625-633 [Medline]
  145. Soderman P, Hartvig P, Fagerlund C Acetazolamide excretion into human breast milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1984; 17:599-600 [Medline]
  146. Rollman O, Pihl-Lundin I Acitretin excretion into human breast milk. Acta Derm Venereol 1990; 70:487-490 [Medline]
  147. Lau RJ, Emery MG, Galinsky RE Unexpected accumulation of acyclovir in breast milk with estimation of infant exposure. Obstet Gynecol 1987; 69:468-471 [Medline]
  148. Meyer LJ, de Miranda P, Sheth N, Spruance S Acyclovir in human breast milk. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988; 158:586-588 [Medline]
  149. Binkiewicz A, Robinson MJ, Senior B Pseudo-Cushing syndrome caused by alcohol in breast milk. J Pediatr 1978; 93:965-967 [Medline]
  150. Cobo E Effect of different doses of ethanol on the milk-ejecting reflex in lactating women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1973; 115:817-821 [Medline]
  151. Kesaniemi YA Ethanol and acetaldehyde in the milk and peripheral blood of lactating women after ethanol administration. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw 1974; 81:84-86 [Medline]
  152. Little RE, Anderson KW, Ervin CH, Worthington-Roberts B, Clarren SK Maternal alcohol use during breast-feeding and infant mental and motor development at one year. N Engl J Med 1989; 321:425-430 [Abstract]
  153. Kamilli I, Gresser U Allopurinol and oxypurinol in human breast milk. Clin Investig 1993; 71:161-164 [Medline]
  154. Kafetzis DA, Siafas CA, Georgakopoulos PA, Papadatos CJ Passage of cephalosporins and amoxicillin into the breast milk. Acta Paediatr Scand 1981; 70:285-288 [Medline]
  155. Berman JD, Melby PC, Neva FA Concentration of Pentostam in human breast milk. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1989; 83:784-785 [CrossRef][Medline]
  156. Sapeika N Excretion of drugs in human milk: review. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Emp 1947; 54:426-431
  157. Bald R, Bernbeck-Betthauser EM, Spahn H, Mutschler E Excretion of azpropazone in human breast milk. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1990; 39:271-273 [CrossRef][Medline]
  158. Fleiss PM, Richwald GA, Gordon J, Stern M, Frantz M, Devlin RG Aztreonam in human serum and breast milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1985; 19:509-511 [Medline]
  159. Nail PA, Thomas MR, Eakin R The effect of thiamin and riboflavin supplementation on the level of those vitamins in human breast milk and urine. Am J Clin Nutr 1980; 33:198-204 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  160. Roepke JL, Kirksey A Vitamin B6 nutriture during pregnancy lactation. I. Vitamin B6 intake, levels of the vitamin in biological fluids, condition of the infant at birth. Am J Clin Nutr 1979; 32:2249-2256 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  161. West KD, Kirksey A Influence of vitamin B6 intake on the content of the vitamin in human milk. Am J Clin Nutr 1976; 29:961-969 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  162. Greentree LB Dangers of vitamin B6 in nursing mothers. N Engl J Med 1979; 300:141-142 [Medline]
  163. Samson RR, McClelland DB Vitamin B12 in human colostrum and milk. Quantitation of the vitamin and its binder and the uptake of bound vitamin B12 by intestinal bacteria. Acta Paediatr Scand 1980; 69:93-99 [Medline]
  164. Eriksson G, Swahn CG Concentrations of baclofen in serum and breast milk from a lactating woman. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1981; 41:185-187 [Medline]
  165. Healy M Suppressing lactaton with oral diuretics. Lancet 1961; 1:1353
  166. Brambel CE, Hunter RE Effect of dicumarol on the nursing infant. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1950; 59:1153 [Medline]
  167. Tyson RM, Shrader EA, Perlman HH Drugs transmitted through breast milk. III. Bromides. J Pediatr 1938; 13:91-93 [CrossRef]
  168. Pittman KA, Smyth RD, Losada M, Zighelboim I, Maduska AL, Sunshine A Human perinatal distribution of butorphanol. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1980; 138:797-800 [Medline]
  169. Berlin CM Jr Excretion of the methylxanthines in human milk. Semin Perinatol 1981; 5:389-394 [Medline]
  170. Tyrala EE, Dodson WE Caffeine secretion into breast milk. Arch Dis Child 1979; 54:787-800 [Abstract]
  171. Hildebrandt R, Gundert-Remy U Lack of pharmacological active saliva levels of caffeine in breast-fed infants. Pediatr Pharmacol (New York) 1983; 3:237-244 [Medline]
  172. Berlin CM Jr, Denson HM, Daniel CH, Ward RM Disposition of dietary caffeine in milk, saliva, and plasma of lactating women. Pediatrics 1984; 73:59-63 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  173. Ryu JE Caffeine in human milk and in serum of breast-fed infants. Dev Pharmacol Ther 1985; 8:329-337 [Medline]
  174. Ryu JE Effect of maternal caffeine consumption on heart rate and sleep time of breast-fed infants. Dev Pharmacol Ther 1985; 8:355-363 [Medline]
  175. Devlin RG, Fleiss PM Captopril in human blood and breast milk. J Clin Pharmacol 1981; 21:110-113 [Abstract]
  176. Nau H, Kuhnz W, Egger JH, Rating D, Helge H Anticonvulsants during pregnancy and lactation. Transplacental, maternal and neonatal pharmacokinetics. Clin Pharmacokinet 1982; 7:508-543 [Medline]
  177. Pynnonen S, Kanto J, Sillanpaa M, Erkkola R Carbamazepine: placental transport, tissue concentrations in foetus and newborn, and level in milk. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh) 1977; 41:244-253 [Medline]
  178. Silcox J, Schulz P, Horbay GL, Wassenaar W Transfer of carbetocin into human breast milk. Obstet Gynecol 1993; 82:456-459 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  179. Cooper DS Antithyroid drugs: to breast-feed or not to breast-feed. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987; 157:234-235 [Medline]
  180. Lamberg BA, Ikonen E, Osterlund K, Antithyroid treatment of maternal hyperthyroidism during lactation. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1984; 21:81-87 [Medline]
  181. Tyson RM, Shrader EA, Perlman HH Drugs transmitted through breast milk. I. Laxatives. J Pediatr 1937; 11:824-832 [CrossRef]
  182. Yoshioka H, Cho K, Takimoto M, Maruyama S, Shimizu T Transfer of cefazolin into human milk. J Pediatr 1979; 94:151-152 [CrossRef][Medline]
  183. Dresse A, Lambotte R, Dubois M, Delapierre D, Kramp R Transmammary passage of cefoxitin: additional results. J Clin Pharmacol 1983; 23:438-440 [Abstract]
  184. Shyu WC, Shah VR, Campbell DA, Excretion of cefprozil into human breast milk. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992; 36:938-941 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  185. Blanco JD, Jorgensen JH, Castaneda YS, Crawford SA Ceftazidime levels in human breast milk. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1983; 23:479-480 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  186. Bourget P, Quinquis-Desmaris V, Fernandez H Ceftriaxone distribution and protein binding between maternal blood and milk postpartum . Ann Pharmacother 1993; 27:294-297 [Abstract]
  187. Lacey JH Dichloralphenazone and breast milk. Br Med J 1971; 4:684
  188. Reed CB A study of the conditions that require the removal of the child from the breast. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1908; 6:514
  189. Soares R, Paulini E, Pereira JP Da concentracao e eliminacao da cloroquina atraves da circulacao placentaria e do leite materno, de pacientes sob regime do sal loroquinado. Rev Bras Malariol Doencas Trop 1957; 9:19
  190. Ogunbona FA, Onyeji CO, Bolaji OO, Torimiro SE Excretion of chloroquine and desethylchloroquine in human milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1987; 23:473-476 [Medline]
  191. Edstein MD, Veenendaal JR, Newman K, Hyslop R Excretion of chloroquine, dapsone and pyrimethamine in human milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1986; 22:733-735 [Medline]
  192. Werthmann MW Jr, Krees SV Excretion of chlorothiazide in human breast milk. J Pediatr 1972; 81:781-783 [CrossRef][Medline]
  193. Miller EM, Cohn RD, Burghart PH Hydrochlorothiazide disposition in a mother and her breast-fed infant. J Pediatr 1982; 101:789-791 [CrossRef][Medline]
  194. Mulley BA, Parr GD, Pau WK, Rye RM, Mould JJ, Siddle NC Placental transfer of chlorthalidone and its elimination in maternal milk. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1978; 13:129-131 [CrossRef][Medline]
  195. Somogyi A, Gugler R Cimetidine excretion into breast milk. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1979; 7:627-629 [Medline]
  196. Oo CY, Kuhn RJ, Desai N, McNamara PJ Active transport of cimetidine into human milk. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1995; 58:548-555 [CrossRef][Medline]
  197. Gardner DK, Gabbe SG, Harter C Simultaneous concentrations of ciprofloxacin in breast milk and in serum in mother and breast-fed infant. Clin Pharm 1992; 11:352-354 [Medline]
  198. Giamarellou H, Kolokythas E, Petrikkos G, Gazis J, Aravantinos D, Sfikakis P Pharmacokinetics of three newer quinolones in pregnant and lactating women. Am J Med 1989; 87:49S-51S [Medline]
  199. Hofmeyr GJ, Sonnendecker EW Secretion of the gastrokinetic agent cisapride in human milk. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1986; 30:735-736 [CrossRef][Medline]
  200. Smith JA, Morgan JR, Rachlis AR, Papsin FR Clindamycin in human breast milk [letter]. Can Med Assoc J 1975; 112:806
  201. Zacharias S, Aguilera E, Assenzo JR, Zanartu J Effects of hormonal and nonhormonal contraceptives on lactation and incidence of pregnancy. Contraception 1986; 33:203-213 [CrossRef][Medline]
  202. Meny RG, Naumburg EG, Alger LS, Brill-Miller JL, Brown S Codeine and the breastfed neonate. J Hum Lact 1993; 9:237-240
  203. Milunsky JM Breast-feeding during colchicine therapy for familial Mediterranean fever [letter]. J Pediatr 1991; 119:164 [Medline]
  204. Ben-Chetrit E, Scherrmann J-M, Levy M Colchicine in breast milk of patients with familial Mediterranean fever. Arthritis Rheum 1996; 39:1213-1217 [Medline]
  205. Guillonneau M, Aigrain EJ, Galliot M, Binet MH, Darbois Y Colchicine is excreted at high concentrations in human breast milk. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1995; 61:177-178 [CrossRef][Medline]
  206. Nilsson S, Mellbin T, Hofvander Y, Sundelin C, Valentin J, Nygren KG Long-term follow-up of children breast-fed by mothers using oral contraceptives. Contraception 1986; 34:443-457 [CrossRef][Medline]
  207. Nilsson S, Nygren KG Transfer of contraceptive steroids to human milk. Res Reprod 1979; 11:1-2 [Medline]
  208. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Drugs Breast-feeding and contraception. Pediatrics 1981; 68:138-140 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  209. Barsivala VM, Virkar KD The effect of oral contraceptives on concentration of various components of human milk. Contraception 1973; 7:307-312
  210. Borglin NE, Sandholm LE Effect of oral contraceptives on lactation. Fertil Steril 1971; 22:39-41 [Medline]
  211. Curtis EM Oral-contraceptive feminization of a normal male infant: report of a case. Obstet Gynecol 1964; 23:295-296 [Free Full Text]
  212. Kora SJ Effect of oral contraceptives on lactation. Fertil Steril 1969; 20:419-423 [Medline]
  213. Toaff R, Ashkenazi H, Schwartz A, Herzberg M Effects of oestrogen and progestagen on the composition of human milk. J Reprod Fertil 1969; 19:475-482 [Medline]
  214. Snider DE Jr, Powell KE Should women taking antituberculosis drugs breast-feed? Arch Intern Med 1984; 144:589-590 [Abstract]
  215. Cancela L, Le Boulch N, Miravet L Relationship between the vitamin D content of maternal milk and the vitamin D status of nursing women and breast-fed infants. J Endocrinol 1986; 110:43-50 [Abstract]
  216. Rothberg AD, Pettifor JM, Cohen DF, Sonnendecker EW, Ross FP Maternal-infant vitamin D relationships during breast-feeding. J Pediatr 1982; 101:500-503 [CrossRef][Medline]
  217. Greer FR, Hollis BW, Napoli JL High concentrations of vitamin D2 in human milk associated with pharmacologic doses of vitamin D2. J Pediatr 1984; 105:61-64 [CrossRef][Medline]
  218. Greenhalf JO, Leonard HS Laxatives in the treatment of constipation in pregnant and breast-feeding mothers. Practitioner 1973; 210:259-263 [Medline]
  219. Dreisbach JA Sulphone levels in breast milk of mothers on sulphone therapy. Lepr Rev 1952; 23:101-106 [Medline]
  220. Mortimer EA Jr Drug toxicity from breast milk [letter]? Pediatrics 1977; 60:780-781 [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  221. FitzJohn TP, Williams DG, Laker MF, Owen JP Intravenous urography during lactation. Br J Radiol 1982; 55:603-605 [Medline]
  222. Loughnan PM Digoxin excretion in human breast milk. J Pediatr 1978; 92:1019-1020 [CrossRef][Medline]
  223. Levy M, Granit L, Laufer N Excretion of drugs in human milk. N Engl J Med 1977; 297:789 [Medline]
  224. Okada M, Inoue H, Nakamura Y, Kishimoto M, Suzuki T Excretion of diltiazem in human milk [letter]. N Engl J Med 1985; 312:992-993 [Medline]
  225. Zylber-Katz E, Linder N, Granit L, Levy M Excretion of dipyrone metabolites in human breast milk. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1986; 30:359-361 [CrossRef][Medline]
  226. MacKintosh D, Buchanan N Excretion of disopyramide in human breast milk [letter]. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1985; 19:856-857 [Medline]
  227. Hoppu K, Neuvonen PJ, Korte T Disopyramide and breast feeding [letter]. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1986; 21:553 [Medline]