Published online June 1, 2006
PEDIATRICS Vol. 117 No. 6 June 2006, pp. 2014-2021 (doi:10.1542/peds.2005-2440)

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Iron Fortification Reduces Blood Lead Levels in Children in Bangalore, India

Michael B. Zimmermann, MD, MSc^a, Sumithra Muthayya, PhD^b, Diego Moretti, PhD^a, Anura Kurpad, MD, PhD^b and Richard F. Hurrell, PhD^a

^a Laboratory for Human Nutrition, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich, Switzerland
^b Institute of Population Health and Clinical Research, St John's National Academy of Health Sciences, Bangalore, India

OBJECTIVE. Chronic lead poisoning and iron deficiency are concentrated in urban children from lower socioeconomic strata, and both impair neurocognitive development. Our study objective was to determine if iron fortification reduces blood lead levels in urban, lead-exposed, iron-deficient children in Bangalore, India.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS. A randomized, double-blind, controlled school-based feeding trial was done in 5- to 13-year-old iron-deficient children (n = 186). At baseline, a high prevalence of lead poisoning was found in the younger children. Subsequently, all 5- to 9-year-old children participating in the trial (n = 134) were followed to determine if iron fortification would affect their blood lead levels.

INTERVENTION. Children were dewormed and fed 6 days/week for 16 weeks either an iron-fortified rice meal (15 mg of iron per day as ferric pyrophosphate) or an identical control meal without added iron. Feeding was directly supervised and compliance monitored.

OUTCOME MEASURES. Hemoglobin, serum ferritin, C-reactive protein, transferrin receptor, zinc protoporphyrin, and blood lead concentrations were measured.

RESULTS. The prevalence of iron deficiency was significantly reduced in the iron group (from 70% to 28%) compared with the control group (76% to 55%). There was a significant decrease in median blood lead concentration in the iron group compared with the control group. The prevalence of blood lead levels 10 µg/dL was significantly reduced in the iron group (from 65% to 29%) compared with the control group (68% to 55%).

CONCLUSIONS. Our findings suggest providing iron in a fortified food to lead-exposed children may reduce chronic lead intoxication. Iron fortification may be an effective and sustainable strategy to accompany environmental lead abatement.

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Key Words: anemia • children • lead toxicity • iron deficiency • fortification

Abbreviations: WHO—World Health Organization • DMT1—divalent metal transporter 1 • AAS—atomic absorption spectroscopy

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Accepted Nov 23, 2005.

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