 |
|
 |
|
 |
 |
|
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ELECTRONIC ARTICLE |
* Institute for Nutrition Research
Department of Pediatric Research
Institute of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
|| Peter Möller, avd Orkla, ASA, Oslo, Norway
--> Objectives. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6 n-3) and arachidonic acid (AA; 20:4 n-6) are important for development of the central nervous system in mammals. There is a growth spurt in the human brain during the last trimester of pregnancy and the first postnatal months, with a large increase in the cerebral content of AA and DHA. The fetus and the newborn infant depend on maternal supply of DHA and AA. Our hypothesis was that maternal intake of DHA during pregnancy and lactation is marginal and that high intake of this fatty acid would benefit the child. We examined the effect of supplementing pregnant and lactating women with very-long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs; cod liver oil) on mental development of the children, compared with maternal supplementation with long-chain n-6 PUFAs (corn oil).
Methods. The study was randomized and double-blinded. Pregnant women were recruited in week 18 of pregnancy to take 10 mL of cod liver oil or corn oil until 3 months after delivery. The cod liver oil contained 1183 mg/10 mL DHA, 803 mg/10 mL eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5 n-3), and a total of 2494 mg/10 mL 
n-3 PUFAs. The corn oil contained 4747 mg/10 mL linoleic acid (18:2 n-6) and 92 mg/10 mL 
-linolenic acid (18:3 n-3). The amount of fat-soluble vitamins was identical in the 2 oils (117 µg/mL vitamin A, 1 µg/mL vitamin D, and 1.4 mg/mL dl--tocopherol). A total of 590 pregnant women were recruited to the study, and 341 mothers took part in the study until giving birth. All infants of these women were scheduled for assessment of cognitive function at 6 and 9 months of age, and 262 complied with the request. As part of the protocol, 135 subjects from this population were invited for intelligence testing with the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC) at 4 years of age. Of the 135 invited children, 90 came for assessment. Six children did not complete the examination. The K-ABC is a measure of intelligence and achievement designed for children aged 2.5 years through 12.5 years. This multisubtest battery comprises 4 scales: Sequential Processing, Simultaneous Processing, Achievement (not used in the present study), and Nonverbal Abilities. The Sequential Processing and Simultaneous Processing scales are hypothesized to reflect the child’s style of problem solving and information processing. Scores from these 2 scales are combined to form a Mental Processing Composite, which serves as the measure of intelligence in the K-ABC.
Results. We received dietary information from 76 infants (41 in the cod liver oil group and 35 in the corn oil group), documenting that all of them were breastfed at 3 months of age. Children who were born to mothers who had taken cod liver oil (n = 48) during pregnancy and lactation scored higher on the Mental Processing Composite of the K-ABC at 4 years of age as compared with children whose mothers had taken corn oil (n = 36; 106.4 [7.4] vs 102.3 [11.3]). The Mental Processing Composite score correlated significantly with head circumference at birth (r = 0.23), but no relation was found with birth weight or gestational length. The children’s mental processing scores at 4 years of age correlated significantly with maternal intake of DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid during pregnancy. In a multiple regression model, maternal intake of DHA during pregnancy was the only variable of statistical significance for the children’s mental processing scores at 4 years of age.
Conclusion. Maternal intake of very-long-chain n-3 PUFAs during pregnancy and lactation may be favorable for later mental development of children.
Key Words: dietary supplements • n-3 fatty acids • docosahexaenoic acid • arachidonic acid • pregnancy • breastfeeding • intelligence test • K-ABC
Abbreviations: DHA, docosahexaenoic acid • AA, arachidonic acid • PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acid • K-ABC, Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children • EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid
This article has been cited by other articles:
 |
|
 |
|
  E. Oken, J. S. Radesky, R. O. Wright, D. C. Bellinger, C. J. Amarasiriwardena, K. P. Kleinman, H. Hu, and M. W. Gillman Maternal Fish Intake during Pregnancy, Blood Mercury Levels, and Child Cognition at Age 3 Years in a US Cohort Am. J. Epidemiol., May 15, 2008; 167(10): 1171 - 1181. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. A. Ricciotti State of the Art Reviews: Nutrition and Lifestyle for a Healthy Pregnancy American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, April 1, 2008; 2(2): 151 - 158. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. M Innis and R. W Friesen Essential n-3 fatty acids in pregnant women and early visual acuity maturation in term infants Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, March 1, 2008; 87(3): 548 - 557. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C King and M Fewtrell Fishing for brain power? Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed., January 1, 2008; 93(1): F4 - F6. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J A Dunstan, K Simmer, G Dixon, and S L Prescott Cognitive assessment of children at age 21/2 years after maternal fish oil supplementation in pregnancy: a randomised controlled trial Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed., January 1, 2008; 93(1): F45 - F50. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. Dubnov-Raz, Y. Finkelstein, and G. Koren {omega}-3 fatty acid supplementation during pregnancy: For mother, baby, or neither? Can Fam Physician, May 1, 2007; 53(5): 817 - 818. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. Krauss-Etschmann, R. Shadid, C. Campoy, E. Hoster, H. Demmelmair, M. Jimenez, A. Gil, M. Rivero, B. Veszpremi, T. Decsi, et al. Effects of fish-oil and folate supplementation of pregnant women on maternal and fetal plasma concentrations of docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid: a European randomized multicenter trial Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, May 1, 2007; 85(5): 1392 - 1400. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. Makrides and R. A. Gibson Marine Oil Supplements for Pregnant Women: Good for Mum, Good for Baby? NeoReviews, April 1, 2007; 8(4): e152 - e158. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D. Mozaffarian and E. B. Rimm Fish intake, contaminants, and human health: evaluating the risks and the benefits. JAMA, October 18, 2006; 296(15): 1885 - 1899. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. Szajewska, A. Horvath, and B. Koletzko Effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation of women with low-risk pregnancies on pregnancy outcomes and growth measures at birth: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, June 1, 2006; 83(6): 1337 - 1344. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 P. Coti Bertrand, J. R. O'Kusky, and S. M. Innis Maternal Dietary (n-3) Fatty Acid Deficiency Alters Neurogenesis in the Embryonic Rat Brain J. Nutr., June 1, 2006; 136(6): 1570 - 1575. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. L. Hart, L. M. Boylan, S. R. Carroll, Y. A. Musick, C. Kuratko, B. G. Border, and R. M. Lampe Brief Report: Newborn Behavior Differs with Decosahexaenoic Acid Levels in Breast Milk J. Pediatr. Psychol., March 1, 2006; 31(2): 221 - 226. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. C McCann and B. N Ames Is docosahexaenoic acid, an n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid, required for development of normal brain function? An overview of evidence from cognitive and behavioral tests in humans and animals Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, August 1, 2005; 82(2): 281 - 295. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. Zhang, J. R. Hebert, and M. F. Muldoon Dietary Fat Intake Is Associated with Psychosocial and Cognitive Functioning of School-Aged Children in the United States J. Nutr., August 1, 2005; 135(8): 1967 - 1973. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. Latini, M. Massaro, and C. De Felice Prenatal Exposure to Phthalates and Intrauterine Inflammation: A Unifying Hypothesis Toxicol. Sci., May 1, 2005; 85(1): 743 - 743. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
F. A. J. Muskiet, M. R. Fokkema, A. Schaafsma, E. R. Boersma, and M. A. Crawford Is Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) Essential? Lessons from DHA Status Regulation, Our Ancient Diet, Epidemiology and Randomized Controlled Trials J. Nutr., January 1, 2004; 134(1): 183 - 186. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. M. Lesa, M. Palfreyman, D. H. Hall, M. T. Clandinin, C. Rudolph, E. M. Jorgensen, and G. Schiavo Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are required for efficient neurotransmission in C. elegans J. Cell Sci., December 15, 2003; 116(24): 4965 - 4975. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C. M. Smuts, M. Huang, D. Mundy, T. Plasse, S. Major, and S. E. Carlson A Randomized Trial of Docosahexaenoic Acid Supplementation During the Third Trimester of Pregnancy Obstet. Gynecol., March 1, 2003; 101(3): 469 - 479. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
 |
||
|
||
Home | My Pediatrics | Journal Information | Current Issue | Past Issues | Subscriptions & Services | Contact Us Click here for faster international access © 2003 American Academy of Pediatrics. All rights reserved. |
||
|
||
