This Article
Right arrow Full Text
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow P3Rs: Submit a response
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when P3Rs are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow E-mail this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Add to My File Cabinet
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via CrossRef
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Annequin, D.
Right arrow Articles by Murat, I.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Annequin, D.
Right arrow Articles by Murat, I.
Related Collections
Right arrow Therapeutics & Toxicology

PEDIATRICS Vol. 105 No. 4 April 2000, p. e47

ELECTRONIC ARTICLE:
Fixed 50% Nitrous Oxide Oxygen Mixture for Painful Procedures: A French Survey

Received Jul 27, 1999; accepted Nov 16, 1999.

Daniel Annequin*, Ricardo Carbajalparallel , Pierre ChauvinDagger , Olivier Gall§, Barbara Tourniaire, and Isabelle Murat§

From the * Unité Fonctionnelle d'Analgésie Pédiatrique Hôpital d'Enfants Armand Trousseau; Dagger  Unité de Biostatistique et d'Informatique Médicale (Inserm U444) Hôpital Saint Antoine; § Service anesthésie réanimation Hôpital d'Enfants Armand Trousseau; parallel  Departement Accueil Urgences, Centre Hospitalier Intercommunal Poissy Saint Germain en Laye; and  Service Hématologie Oncologie Pédiatrique, Hôpital d'Enfants Armand Trousseau, Paris, France.

Objective.  Although the equimolecular mixture of oxygen and nitrous oxide (EMONO) seems a good choice to relieve procedure-related pain in children, it has not been accepted everywhere. In France, the rapid spread of its use has elicited suspicion and doubts regarding its safety. To assess the use and the safety of this gas mixture in the pediatric settings in France, we conducted a national survey.

Methodology.  Centers that had accepted a nation- wide invitation to participate in the survey filled out a questionnaire after each EMONO administration during a 2-month study. Procedure and inhalation characteristics, as well as pain evaluations and side effects, were reported.

Results.  One thousand nineteen EMONO inhalations from 31 centers that agreed to participate in this 2-month survey were analyzed. Median (range) age was 6.4 (0-18) years. Four percent (46) of children were 12 months old or younger, 29% (295) were 5 years old or younger, 45% (459) were 6 to 10 years old, and 26% (265) were older than 10 years of age.The procedures performed with EMONO inhalation were: lumbar punctures (286), bone marrow aspirations (BMA; 231), laceration repairs (215), minor procedures (75), minor surgery (53), punctures (49), fractures (45), dental care (43), and pulmonary endoscopy (22). Nine percent of procedures were undertaken without the presence of a physician; the child being observed only by the attending nurse. A drug association was noted in 182 (17.9%) of procedures: midazolam (63%), acetaminophen (18%), nalbuphine (8.5%), hydroxyzine (5%), flunitrazepam (2%), chlorazepate (2%), morphine (1%), and lorazepam (.5%). EMLA cream (Astra) was applied in 98.6% of lumbar punctures, 93.7% of BMA, and 54.2% of punctures including lymph nodes, hematoma, or renal biopsies. Lidocaine infiltration was performed in 51% of minor surgery procedures, 40% of laceration repairs, and 28% of BMA.The inhalation system included a whistle, a scented mask, and a nonrebreathing respiratory valve in 48.9%, 71.2%, and 78.3% of the patients, respectively. Initial physical restraint was needed in 18.2% of all the patients. Inhalation refusal was noted in 129 (12.7%) children; of these, 53 had an alternative method of analgesia (EMLA or lidocaine infiltration), 15 had no other analgesia, and in the remaining 61, EMONO inhalation was maintained against the child's will.Median (interquartile) inhalation length was 4 (3-5) minutes before starting the procedure and 6 (6-15) minutes for the total inhalation.Median (interquartile) procedural pain evaluations were 9 (0-30) for children on a 0 to 100 visual analog scale, 1 (0-3) for both nurses and parents on a 0 to 10 numerical scale. Median (interquartile) procedural pain as evaluated by nurses for the 3 most frequent procedures were 0 (0-2) for lumbar punctures, 2 (0-4) for bone marrow aspiration, and 2 (0-4) for laceration repair. Comparison of pain assessed by nurses in children 3 years old or younger and those older than 3 years of age showed a median (range) score of 2 (0-10) versus 1 (0-10), respectively. Pain self-assessment was completed in 647 children 6 years of age or older. Median (interquartile) children pain assessments were as follows: lumbar puncture (5; 0-20), bone marrow aspiration (12.5; 0-40), laceration repair (12; 0-40), minor procedures (18; 0-32), minor surgery (10; 0-35), punctures (0; 0-18), fracture (15; 0-30), dental care (20; 0-40), and pulmonary endoscopy (15; 0-30). Ninety-three percent of the 647 children who were able to answer the question said they would accept EMONO analgesia if a new procedure were to be performed. Behavioral reactions during procedures varied with age of the child; cry was observed in 44.1%, 24.4%, 12.9%, and 11.2% of children 3 years or younger, 4 to 6 years, 7 to 10 years, and 11 years or older, respectively. Physical restraint was necessary in 34.2%, 22%, 13.5%, and 8.4% of children aged 3 years or younger, 4 to 6 years, 7 to 10 years, and 11 years or older, respectively. Staff satisfaction regarding EMONO efficacy was as follows: very satisfied (56.7%), satisfied (31.3%), not satisfied (8.6%), and very unsatisfied (3.3%). Minor side effects were observed during 381 (37%) inhalations. These side effects were euphoria (20.1%), change in visual or auditory perception (7.0%), dreams (5.7%), nausea and vomiting (3.7%), deep sedation (2.1%), paresthesia (1.7%), dizziness (1.6%), restlessness (1.5%), nightmares and hallucinations (1.2%), and miscellaneous (1.9%). All side effects were transient and vanished within 5 minutes after removing the inhalation device. No serious side effects were noted.

Conclusions.  This survey shows that EMONO is used to provide analgesia in a great variety of procedures. Although analgesia obtained during procedures is good, this gas mixture is not efficacious in all patients. Therefore, physicians should quickly detect failures to switch to another analgesic approach. The best results are obtained in children 3 years of age or older. Although minor effects are frequent during EMONO inhalation, its use seems very safe because no single serious side effect was noted during this study. This helpful method is still underused, and it should be readily available in each emergency and pediatric department.  Key words:  child, pain, procedure, nitrous oxide, inhalation route, safety.




This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 Anesth. Analg.Home page
J. L. Zier, G. J. Drake, P. C. McCormick, K. M. Clinch, and D. N. Cornfield
Case-Series of Nurse-Administered Nitrous Oxide for Urinary Catheterization in Children
Anesth. Analg., April 1, 2007; 104(4): 876 - 879.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Arch. Dis. Child.Home page
K Ekbom, J Jakobsson, and C Marcus
Nitrous oxide inhalation is a safe and effective way to facilitate procedures in paediatric outpatient departments
Arch. Dis. Child., October 1, 2005; 90(10): 1073 - 1076.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Arch. Dis. Child.Home page
A G Cleary, H D Murphy, and J E Davidson
Intra-articular corticosteroid injections in juvenile idiopathic arthritis
Arch. Dis. Child., March 1, 2003; 88(3): 192 - 196.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Arch. Dis. Child.Home page
A G Cleary, A V Ramanan, E Baildam, A Birch, J A Sills, and J E Davidson
Nitrous oxide analgesia during intra-articular injection for juvenile idiopathic arthritis
Arch. Dis. Child., June 1, 2002; 86(6): 416 - 418.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]